Scotland: History and Modernity

3.2 James VI and The Union of the Crowns (1603)

In 1603, two very different nations were brought together by the curious fact that they only had one monarch between them. On the death of England's Queen Elizabeth I without children, the next in line to the throne was the reigning king of Scotland, King James VI. James won the backing of the English establishment as he was a Protestant, he had sons who could be king after him, and his 36-year rule in Scotland had largely been a success. However, he was also a Scot, who spoke a different language and had a different cultural background. How would he be able to bring the two countries together? These pages explore James's personality and the effects of his arrival in England, and include images of James's own books from the National Library of Scotland 's rich collections. We look at how 1603 changed Britain, with consequences that we are still living with in the devolved Scotland of today.

Before 1603. James Stuart was crowned King of Scotland in 1567 when he was just a year old. Although only a baby, he was an important symbol of the Scottish nation, and of the authority of the reformed Church of Scotland.

Fragile country - both nation and Kirk faced many threats to their survival. Despite its ancient monarchy, Scotland was a fragile country, ruled in the borders and islands by local chiefs and warlords, and with painful memories of wars with England. The Reformation was still in process, with continuing Roman Catholic opposition, and the Kirk itself was divided over structure and doctrine. As James grew up and took on the responsibilities of ruling Scotland, he gradually managed to bring a greater degree of order to the main areas under his authority. By 1589, he was secure enough to leave Scotland temporarily to sail to Denmark for his bride, Queen Anne.

Cultural revival - as Scotland settled down, a thriving group of poets, translators and dramatists gathered around the royal court. James, who loved writing poetry, was at the centre of this cultural revival. By 1599, he was able to write a book on how to be a successful king, which he addressed to his son, Prince Henry. It looked as though there were good prospects for Scotland becoming a viable nation with a line of cultured kings.

No English heir - but to the south, England - larger, richer, and with a longer tradition of strong central government - had a queen with no children. Queen Elizabeth had executed James's mother Mary Queen of Scots, one possible successor, and now had no-one to follow her. A king or queen was seen as an essential guarantee of continuity and authority. If England could not produce a monarch, one would have to be imported.

James becomes king. On 24 March 1603, Queen Elizabeth of England died. She had always refused to discuss the succession with her court, but most people knew that King James VI of Scotland was the only suitable candidate. Although he was from a country with which England had fought many wars, he was a Protestant, had already been a successful king, and had healthy children to succeed him. Lengthy family trees were compiled to show how James descended from the English houses of York and Lancaster as well as the Scottish Stuarts, and he was proclaimed King James I of England.

Rule from London - the news was quick to travel north, and the English aristocracy hurried to acclaim their new master. James, who had always hoped to hold the English throne, packed his bags. London was the only place for the new ruler of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. (Ireland had been under the English crown to varying degrees since the 12th century, and Wales had been politically united with England in 1536.) James told the disconsolate citizens of Edinburgh that he would return frequently, but it must have been obvious that Scotland was going to lose out. The court, including the leading Scottish poets, moved south. James travelled for the first time across the border and down through England, dispensing honours and money along the way to win the admiration of his new subjects.

Learned sovereign - the English were nervous about the arrival of Scots seeking positions in London, and about James's plans for their country, but there was relief that they had a king again. James's works were republished in England to advertise him to those who could not see him in person. Here was one of the most learned kings ever, who wrote theology and politics, gave eloquent speeches, and knew many languages. Would it, though, be enough to help him be the first ruler of the whole British Isles?

Uniting the Crowns. James VI and I started his English reign with all kinds of hopes and ambitions. He saw himself as a scholar-king like Solomon, or at the head of a new civilisation like an early Roman emperor, and leading a united and peaceful British nation.

Plans for union - one of his first projects was a full legal and political union of England and Scotland. James told the English Parliament that Scotland would now have to become like an English shire such as Northumberland. However, the English were suspicious of the idea; they were afraid that their Scottish ruler was planning a union that would threaten their identity. To James's dismay, the English Parliament threw the plans out: the only 'union' that they would allow was a union of crowns. One king: two different countries.

Other troubles - James found that his other ideas also ran into trouble. He encouraged England to make peace with its traditional Catholic enemies, such as Spain, leading to accusations that he was giving in to 'popery'. His plan for 'civilising' Ireland by means of settling thousands of Protestant Scots in Ulster also generated conflict. James frequently retreated into his own world, hunting, watching theatrical performances and conducting theological disputes with the Pope. His English subjects seem to have been bemused by their king.

Back in Scotland - and what of Scotland? Managed in James's absence by strong nobles and officials, who received frequent messages from James in London, Scotland remained generally peaceful, and maintained its separate system of law and government. James's attempts to make the Kirk more like the Church of England, however, were unpopular, and stored up trouble for the future. The renaissance of Scots literature had been partly snuffed out when the court moved to London: many court poets changed from writing in Scots to writing in English. James only made one return visit to Scotland, in 1617.

James VI. The man who lies behind the Union of the Crowns has been seen in different ways. Some historians accuse James of being a self-indulgent character dependent on young male favourites and over-fond of drink. Others point out that he governed Scotland with great success, worked for religious peace in Europe, and supported two great cultural movements - the revival of Scots poetry and the rise of the English theatre at the time of William Shakespeare. His books are now increasingly read again by historians and scholars, following a reappraisal of his works and reputation.

Ahead of his time - sometimes James's opinions seem shocking to us - his approval of burning heretics; his assertion that the only authority over him was God - and sometimes rather bizarre - for instance, his order that the lower classes should not be allowed to play bowls. In other areas, he seems to have been ahead of his time - warning against passive smoking, cultivating friendships with Spaniards, and calling for the protection of forests. During James's reign the British colonies in North America became well-established: the Jamestown assembly met in 1619, and the Pilgrim Fathers arrived on the Mayflower in 1620, leading to the development of an organised English-speaking community.

Crucial role - popular stories about James abound: his practice of urinating on horseback has passed into legend. On a more pleasant note, many people think he wrote the Authorised Version of the Bible: in fact he commissioned it. Each year on 5 November, firework displays commemorate James's escape from being blown up in the Gunpowder Plot. Love him or loathe him, James is crucial to the story of Britain.

Consequences of Union. If James not been available to become King of England, it seems highly likely that England and Scotland would have continued their separate development into modern nation-states. Indeed, after his death in 1625, the union started to fall apart. James never visited Ireland, Wales, the Highlands or islands of Scotland, and the 'British Isles' never became culturally united as he had hoped.

War, rebellion and 1707 - in fact, the removal of the Scottish king from his country was a major cause of the 17th-century civil wars, in which Scotland rebelled against King Charles I. James's union gave England a royal family it distrusted and left Scotland without the key symbol of national independence. At the end of the 17th century, the House of Stuart was expelled from Britain, and despite the various Jacobite attempts, never restored. As a result, the Union of the English and Scottish Parliaments was accomplished in 1707 against the wishes of James's descendants. James certainly did not expect his union to turn out like this [10, p. 83 - 84].

Scotland today - four hundred years after the Union of the Crowns, devolution has reversed some of the effects of 1707, but Scotland and England still share a monarch and have London as the Government's centre of power. If James were to return to Edinburgh in the 21st century, there is much he would recognise - both parts of the skyline and aspects of the culture and politics of a country that has many of the qualities of nationhood, but which lacks full independence.

4. Political and cultural life after merger of Scotland and England. The Jacobite Rebellions

King James VI of Scotland ascended the throne of England in 1603 as James I, `King of Great Britain'. For the first time the fiery and independent Scotland was united with its southern neighbour via the monarchy, yet they remained independent kingdoms with their own parliaments, legal and religious systems. In 1707 the Union of Scotland and England occurred. Through the terms of the Act of Union the Scottish parliament was abolished and England and Scotland were joined as the one kingdom of Great Britain, yet as before Scotland retained its religious and legal independence. The last Jacobite uprising occurred in 1745 and with the defeat of Bonnie Prince Charlie an end was put to the movement to try to return the Stuarts - the one time kings of Scotland - to the throne. Almost all Scots were now firmly under the Hanoverian banner and they gradually became active citizens of Great Britain [11, p. 161 - 336].

The Scots of the 17th and 18th Centuries can roughly be divided into two groups - the highlanders and lowlanders. The highlanders of northern Scotland were composed of the clans - powerful aristocratic landowners and their families and peasants such as the Macdonalds and Campbells, who practically ruled their respective territories from large houses and manors and who had great influence in the towns which they oversaw. They were the chief supporters of the Stuarts and had their own (although as we shall see it was later augmented) distinctive culture. The southerly lowlanders were much more like their English neighbours - living relatively freely in towns and cities and on the land with their own lords and earls and knowing little of the highland culture or politics. Prior to 1745 most of the highlanders viewed the Union with contempt, while the lowlanders had mixed feelings. Some of the bourgeoisie supported the increased opportunities for trade and advancement, while others resented the loss of some of their independence, and many who went south found their opportunities limited because of discrimination against the Scots [12, p. 47 - 111].

After the uprising of 1745 the Highlanders, who had formed the majority of the Prince's army, were scattered and lost much of their power and influence. The private jurisdictions of the clan chieftains were abolished and replaced by the power of the king. The wearing of tartans and kilts was banned except in the army and the Highland culture was shunned as being backwards, feudal, rough and unrefined, as indeed many Lowlanders and Sassenachs had always thought. Episcopalian clergymen were required to take new oaths of allegiance to the king. Nonetheless with the demise of Jacobitism and the advent of the Union thousands of Scots, mainly Lowlanders, poured into England and took up numerous positions in politics, civil service, the army and navy, trade, economics, colonial enterprises and other areas [13, p. 119].

The ever increasing British Empire presented many opportunities to enterprising Scots and this people, who appeared to be on the whole more adventurous than the English, took advantage of these. The English picked up most of the best posts at home and generally were on the whole reluctant to travel abroad, meaning that many of the English in the colonies were second rate men. By contrast the Scots, who often came from poorer and less established backgrounds and who were at times as much outsiders in England as anywhere else in the empire, were far more willing to travel and take risks in amassing wealth, promotions and prosperity in the far reaches of the empire. This meant that many more talented Scots were available than their English counterparts and many of them made full use of this advantage. Scots could be found all over the empire, from India to Canada to Australia and New Zealand. A Scot from a prominent Jacobite family named James Murray became the first British governor of Quebec. John Murray was governor of New York in 1770, while in India Scots such as George Bogle had important posts and positions. Indeed British Bengal was flooded with Scots - some 60% of the free merchants were Scotsmen [14, p. 105 - 132].

Throughout the second half of the 18th Century only the army, a few societies and some proud Highlanders kept the Highland tradition and culture alive. Chief among these was the Highland Society of London, founded in 1777. The Disarming Act which had banned the wearing of any of the traditional Highland garb was repealed in 1782 largely through the efforts of this society [15, p. 150].

Throughout that time a slow current of revival had begun, and in the1820's the Highland culture exploded back onto the scene and gained unprecedented popularity. The curious thing was that the tradition that found prominence would have been almost unrecognisable to the Highlanders of 150 years before. It all began with James Macpherson. He was a poet and scholar and a member of one of the great Jacobite clans and he took a great interest in ancients Scots Celtic works. In 1760 he published Fragments of Ancient Poetry, collected in the Highlands of Scotland, and translated from the Gaelic or Erse Language. This was followed in 1762 by Fingal and then Temora in 1763, both of which were complete epic poems. Macpherson claimed that they had all been written by a Celtic bard named Ossian in the 3rd Cen. AD. Here were Scottish epics to rival the Iliad which proved that the ancient Celtic culture had been culturally sophisticated and colourful. However their true nature and authenticity has been debated ever since.

These poems undoubtedly contain information relevant to Macpherson's own time. Macpherson retained his Jacobite sympathies throughout his life, but he thought that Jacobitism was lost, confined to a past in which the old Celtic highland spirit lived on. The poems reflect this. They picture a Gaelic world in which the old order of the warriors and heroes, the spirit, romanticism and traditions of the people, of a pre-modern life without corruption, are all falling, never to rise again - a romantic world. Yet they depict that the spirit and tradition of those times will continue as an “assertion by the ancient civilisation of the North of the triumph of mind and spirit over the seedy world of Hanoverian commerce and imperialism.” The analogies with the current times, less than twenty years after the final fall of the Jacobite cause and the Highlands were subtle yet clear to those who knew their history and politics. Yet it was an assertion of the spirit only - the legacy of the `noble savage' ancestors, and not one that impacted on the contemporary world or Britishness. Nevertheless it seems likely that Macpherson really did collect a large amount of old Gaelic poems from a wide range of places and times, and that he edited and rewrote them as he saw fit to promote his message of the nobility of the old Caledonians, their loss and the endurance of their tradition. Even though their were early claims of forgery against Macpherson, the Ossianic poems turned out to be a great success across Europe and were one of the first significant works of the Romantic movement. Mighty figures such as Goethe and Napoleon were fascinated by Ossian [16, p. 75].

No one had a greater influence over the recreation of the Highlands that Sir Walter Scott, the famous Lowland Scottish novelist. Scott fully supported the Union. He believed that it would heal the divides between the Scottish people and offer new horizons to them, and he actively set about seeing that this was achieved. Scot had some sympathy with Jacobitism and indeed he went on to record it as representing Scottish national feeling as a whole. Yet he saw it as a romantic past, in a similar way to Macpherson - a time of primitive emotion, passion, excitement, heroics and old traditions and an allegiance gained by the seductive Stuart charisma. He described it as having been overtaken by the new rationalism and advancement of a United Britain and its government, a process through which it inevitably had to go. Scott largely ignored the radical politics of the Jacobites and the cruel suppression of them and the highlands by the Hanoverians. He confines Jacobite politics, indeed Scotland's history as a whole, to the emotive past, with no place in the rational present or future. Scott thus stripped it of its political elements and any active role in the future, confining it to a common Scottish past which one could be proud of and yet which had no bearing on the present world. Furthermore, as stated above he advanced the Union as being able to overcome the old highland/lowland and other divides in Scotland by replacing its nationalism and its efforts in one common and rational cause. His Scotland was a “museum of history and culture, denuded of the political dynamic which must keep such culture alive and developing” and thus not relevant to the current political world [17, p. 511 - 523].

The culmination of Scott's beliefs and ambitions occurred in 1822. In that year King George IV visited Edinburgh, the first ever Hanoverian to set foot in Scotland. Scott made the occasion a `gathering of the Gael' and the old Celtic world was everywhere to be seen. Hugh Trevor-Roper argues that Scott was “imprisoned by his fanatical Celtic friends, carried away by his own romantic Celtic fantasises…determined to forget historic Scotland, his own Lowland Scotland, altogether.” While this view may be a bit extreme, it is a good indication of what occurred during that fateful royal visit. Celtic culture, dress, tradition, music (bagpipes as opposed to the older Celtic harp) and poetry were all celebrated during the visit, as Scott amalgamated all Scots into the Highland tradition. This allowed him to further shift Scottish allegiance as one whole from a Jacobite ideology to that of the Hanoverians and the Union which he supported. The Highland Society of London, in conjunction with the cloth manufactures of Edinburgh and surrounds cashed in on the festivities by creating a range of separate clan tartans to be worn by the various clans present. This aided the restoration of the clan system that was abolished after the final Jacobite uprising, although the new form it appeared in was somewhat different to the historical reality. The work of creating clan tartans was carried on by the brothers Allen, who in the 1840's published two books called Vestiarium Scoticum and The Costume of the Clans. These works claimed to trace and identify the different tartans of the various Scottish clans and their long history. The manufacture of clan tartan clothes and goods took off and has remained strong ever since. In fact individual tartans were only a creation of the 18th Century at the earliest. They had most likely begun in the various highland regiments in the army to distinguish them from each other and were then first introduced into the civil world as recently as the instances described above. While tartan in the Highlands does indeed stretch back to at least the 16th Century, its patterns were usually only whatever was available or which were the latest styles of the day [18, p. 30 - 41].

With Jacobitism gone, the government harnessed the significant military potential of the Highlands and Scotland in general - the Highlanders had long had a reputation as fierce and devoted warriors. Approximately one in four regimental officers in the mid-18th Cen. was a Scot, while they also took an important part in home defence - 50,000 Scottish volunteers were mobilised during the Napoleonic Wars. Abroad 25% of the Scottish male population served in a military capacity between 1792 and 1815. The highlanders in particular were dominant, with more than 48,300 of them recruited between 1756 and 1815, while during the Seven Years War one in four males were in service.

War with the French continued on and off for over 100 years from 1689 to 1815. The English were also at war at one stage or another with all the European powers and numerous other peoples all over the world. As we have seen in most cases the Scots fought alongside the English, forming a bond with them on the battlefield. The highland soldiers began to understand their identity as being not only Scottish, which was an accomplishment in itself, but as British. The old divides between highland and lowland, Scottish and English, were being wiped away in and via the army. The Scots needed to feel that the risks they took and the blood they shed in the army and navy was for a good cause - a cause that served their interests and advanced and protected something that affected them and which they cared about. This could only be achieved by the belief that they were fighting for a united Britain whose allegiance and nationhood they upheld [19, p. 1, 2, 126, 127].

The Scots shared with their neighbours a keen belief in Protestantism. Even though their main denominations were different they were both fiercely Protestant and very much anti-Catholic, or at least against the Roman and papal influence they could spread via the Catholic Church. There were great fears in the 1830s-50's about the increasing influence of Catholicism in Britain and what some saw as the increasingly Catholic trends of the Church of England, known as Tractarianism. In 1851 Rome divided Britain into separate dioceses for its churches and this only served to heighten the fear and was seen as an unwanted outside influence. Their great enemies the French were Catholic, and were they not superstitious and unfree as a result? The growth of the empire showed God's providential destiny for Britain as the new `Protestant Israel' who's mission was to spread the Gospel across the world. With all this occurring and the rise of the Evangelicals across Britain both Scots and English had great cause to be proud and supportive of their common Protestantism.

Scotland benefited greatly from the empire and had much influence in it - they were an active and in many ways equal partner in it. Great intellectuals such as the historian William Robertson and the philosopher David Hume were widely known and respected, while Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the nature and causes of the Wealth of Nations was the first major work on laissez-faire economics and paved the way for modern capitalism. Indeed the Scottish Enlightenment has become well known, far more so than any corresponding achievements in England. Engineers and architects such as James Watt became world famous and there were also prominent authors and poets such as Robert Burns and the aforementioned Walter Scott. Scottish universities were flourishing and produced a wealth of people trained for such professions and also a host of medical doctors. While in the 100 years from 1750-1850 England produced 500 doctors, Scotland produced 10,000. Naturally many of these went south and further abroad in the search for work [20, p. 5 - 9, 11 - 54].

Above all else, Scotland became an industrial and economic powerhouse. After the 1750s its economy expanded at a rapid rate - overseas commerce growing by a significant 300% between 1750 and 1800. Various industries such as coal and other mining, iron, steel, textiles and linen, tobacco, engineering and cotton all flourished. Steel and iron were particularly profitable. By the 1760s over 40% of British imports of tobacco came through Scotland - more entered Glasgow than London, and other imports also grew rapidly. Glasgow was also the biggest builder and exporter of steam locomotives in the world and shipping was immense - shipbuilders along the Clyde alone produced over 70% of all British iron tonnage between 1851-70, with clients including the mighty Cunard who had many of their great ocean liners built by John Brown's yards on the Clydebank.

Scottish towns and cities also flourished. The urban population doubled between 1750 and 1800, Glasgow became an industrial powerhouse and Edinburgh a modern, attractive city with a true blend of the Scottish past and British present. Agriculture too continued to be important, especially the keeping of sheep. As has already been noted, Scots all over the empire ran or worked for profitable businesses, farms or trades. The commercial empire thus opened up a whole new world to the Scots and invited them to become a full part of Britain, an invitation that many accepted with relish. This is not to say that the Scottish working classes and poor were well off - in most cases and times far from it, yet like their English counterparts they were proud of their nation's achievements and on the whole seem to have supported British imperialism and culture [21, p. 165 - 199].

The Scots were also increasingly supportive of the monarchy, particularly during the reign of Queen Victoria. New technologies such as the train had greatly improved and increased the speed of travel and the Queen and her family made numerous trips to Scotland. These were popular and regal events and attracted many people. Victoria and Albert had an increasing interest in the Highlands and they openly supported the Highland history and culture of Scotland as it was described by the likes of Scott and Macpherson. This was much loved by the populace and the monarchy became very popular in Scotland - it became in many ways `their' monarchy far more than under any previous Hanoverian rulers. By playing up to the Highland tradition, the monarchy managed to largely avoid becoming involved in contemporary political problems in Scotland, they achieved the shift of the old Scottish familiarity with monarchy from the Stuarts to themselves and they helped to uphold Scottish conservatism by recalling the times when the chiefs and aristocrats had supposedly been respected and revered figures. This was aided by the restoring in a renewed form of the old clan system which had been crippled after the '45, as noted above [22, p. 47 - 73].

We have seen how the Scots were able to integrate themselves into Britain yet retain their sense of being Scots. A combination of a retained semi-independence, a tendency to stick together and a questionable yet highly popular tradition forged from a deep Highland past, gave the Scots a sense of their own national identity that went beyond being a Highlander or Lowlander. Yet this did not interfere with or prevent them from actively joining Britain. The possibilities and activities of Britain and above all the empire gave the Scots access to the world and the English allowed them this access. Their commonality with the English was reinforced through war, trade and conquest as the multitude of other peoples whom they met were othered in one way or another. This strengthened the bonds of law, religion - especially Protestantism, ideology and customs that they shared. Finally the monarchy came to be accepted in Scotland and was a unifying force for both peoples. The Scots could be both Scottish and British at the same time - it was to be one of the most successful partnerships the world has ever seen.

5. Modern life of Scotland

5.1 The main characteristics of Scotland in the modern era

Scotland in the modern era, from the end of the Jacobite rebellions and beginnings of industrialisation in the 18th century to the present day, has played a major part in the economic, military and political history of the United Kingdom, British Empire and Europe, while recurring issues over the status of Scotland, its status and identity have dominated political debate. Scotland made a major contribution to the intellectual life of Europe, particularly in the Enlightenment, producing major figures including the economist Adam Smith, philosophers Francis Hutcheson and David Hume, and scientists William Cullen, Joseph Black and James Hutton. In the 19th century major figures included James Watt, James Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin and Sir Walter Scott. Scotland 's economic contribution to the Empire and the industrial revolution included its banking system and the development of cotton, coal mining, shipbuilding and an extensive railway network. Industrialisation and changes to agriculture and society led to depopulation and clearances of the largely rural highlands, migration to the towns and mass immigration, where Scots made a major contribution to the development of countries including the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. In the 20th century, Scotland played a major role in the British and allied effort in the two world wars and began to suffer a sharp industrial decline, going through periods of considerable political instability. The decline was particularly acute in the second half of the 20th century, but was compensated for to a degree by the development of an extensive oil industry, technological manufacturing and a growing service sector. This period also increasing debates about the place of Scotland within the United Kingdom, the rise of the Scottish National Party and after a referendum in 1999 the establishment of a devolved Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh [23].

5.2 The modern literature

Although after union with England, Scotland increasingly adopted English language and wider cultural norms, its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation. Allan Ramsay (1686-1758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the Habbie stanza as a poetic form. James Macpherson was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation, claiming to have found poetry written by Ossian, he published translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics. Robert Burns and Walter Scott were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle. Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major figure in the Romantic movement. As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland, often revising or adapting them. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang Syne" is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and "Scots Wha Hae" served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country. Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. His first prose work, Waverley in 1814, is often called the first historical novel. It launched a highly successful career that probably more than any other figure helped define and popularise Scottish cultural identity. In the late 19th century, a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations. Robert Louis Stevenson's work included the urban Gothic novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), and played a major part in developing the historical adventure in books like Kidnapped and Treasure Island. Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories helped found the tradition of detective fiction. The "kailyard tradition" at the end of the century, brought elements of fantasy and folklore back into fashion as can be seen in the work of figures like J. M. Barrie, most famous for his creation of Peter Pan and George MacDonald whose works including Phantasies played a major part in the creation of the fantasy genre.

In the early 20th century there was a new surge of activity in Scottish literature, influenced by modernism and resurgent nationalism, known as the Scottish Renaissance. The leading figure in the movement was Hugh MacDiarmid (the pseudonym of Christopher Murray Grieve). MacDiarmid attempted to revive the Scots language as a medium for serious literature in poetic works including "A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle" (1936), developing a form of Synthetic Scots that combined different regional dialects and archaic terms. Other writers that emerged in this period, and are often treated as part of the movement, include the poets Edwin Muir and William Soutar, the novelists Neil Gunn, George Blake, Nan Shepherd, A J Cronin, Naomi Mitchison, Eric Linklater and Lewis Grassic Gibbon, and the playwright James Bridie. All were born within a fifteen-year period (1887 and 1901) and, although they cannot be described as members of a single school they all pursued an exploration of identity, rejecting nostalgia and parochialism and engaging with social and political issues. Some writers that emerged after the Second World War followed MacDiarmid by writing in Scots, including Robert Garioch and Sydney Goodsir Smith. Others demonstrated a greater interest in English language poetry, among them Norman MacCaig, George Bruce and Maurice Lindsay. A younger generation of novelists that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s included Shena Mackay, Alan Spence, Allan Massie and the work of William McIlvanney.

From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, particularly associated with a group of Glasgow writers focused around meetings in the house of critic, poet and teacher Philip Hobsbaum. Also important in the movement was Peter Kravitz, editor of Polygon Books. Members of the group that would come to prominence as writers included James Kelman, Alasdair Gray, Liz Lochhead, Tom Leonard and Aonghas MacNeacail. In the 1990s major, prize winning, Scottish novels that emerged from this movement included Irvine Welsh's Trainspotting (1993), Warner's Morvern Callar (1995), Gray's Poor Things (1992) and Kelman's How Late It Was, How Late (1994). These works were linked by a sometimes overtly political reaction to Thatcherism that explored marginal areas of experience and used vivid vernacular language (including expletives and Scots dialect). Scottish crime fiction has been a major area of growth with the success of novelists including Val McDermid, Frederic Lindsay, Christopher Brookmyre, Quintin Jardine, Denise Mina and particularly the success of Edinburgh's Ian Rankin and his Inspector Rebus novels. This period also saw the emergence of a new generation of Scottish poets that became leading figures on the UK stage, including Don Paterson, Robert Crawford, Kathleen Jamie and Carol Ann Duffy. Glasgow-born Carol Ann Duffy was named as Poet Laureate in May 2009, the first woman, the first Scot and the first openly gay poet to take the post [24].

5.3 Tourism in Scotland

5.3.1 The main features

Scotland is a well-developed tourist destination, with tourism generally being responsible for sustaining 200,000 jobs mainly in the service sector, with tourist spending averaging at Ј4bn per year. Tourists from the United Kingdom make up the bulk of visitors to Scotland. In 2002 , for example, UK visitors made 18.5 million visits to Scotland, staying 64.5 million nights and spending Ј3.7bn. In contrast, overseas residents made 1.58 million visits to Scotland, staying 15 million nights and spending Ј806m. In terms of overseas visitors, those from the United States made up 24% of visits to Scotland, with the United States being the largest source of overseas visitors, and Germany (9%), France (8%), Canada (7%) and Australia (6%), following behind.

Scotland is generally seen as clean, unspoilt destination with beautiful scenery which has a long and complex history, combined with thousands of historic sites and attractions. These include prehistoric stone circles, standing stones and burial chambers, and various Bronze Age, Iron Age and Stone Age remains. There are also many historic castles, houses, and battlegrounds, ruins and museums. Many people are drawn by the culture of Scotland.

The cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow are increasingly being seen as a cosmopolitan alternative to Scotland's countryside, with visitors year round, but the main tourist season is generally from April to October inclusive. In addition to these factors, the national tourist agency, VisitScotland, have deployed a strategy of niche marketing, aimed at exploiting, amongst other things, Scotland's strengths in golf, fishing and food and drink tourism. Another significant, and increasingly popular reason for tourism to Scotland - especially by those from North America - is genealogy, with many visitors coming to Scotland to explore their family and ancestral roots [25].

5.3.2 Tourist destinations in Scotland

Edinburgh is the capital city. The Old and New Towns of the city constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Edinburgh is the largest tourist destination in Scotland, and the second largest in the United Kingdom after London. The cities' major tourist attractions include Edinburgh Castle, Edinburgh Zoo, the Palace of Holyroodhouse, Our Dynamic Earth and the Royal Mile. It has three universities including the University of Edinburgh founded in 1583.

Glasgow is the largest city in the country, and the second largest tourist destination after Edinburgh. Its attractions include the Burrell Collection, Glasgow Cathedral, the Glasgow Science Centre and the Kelvingrove Museum. In addition to this many tourists come to Glasgow for its renowned Victorian architecture and Gothic architecture as well as its shopping. The city has three universities, including the University of Glasgow founded in 1451.

Stirling is a historic town in central Scotland, some 30 miles to the north-west of Edinburgh, and is generally known as the "Gateway to the Highlands", due to its geographical position between highland and lowland Scotland. Amongst its attractions are Stirling Castle, the Wallace National Monument and the Thieves Pot/Thistles Centre.

Aberdeen is known as the "Granite City" and is renowned for its gothic architecture. It is a city of approximately 210,000 people and serves as the main administrative centre for the north east of Scotland. With its large port and harbour, Aberdeen serves as the departure point for the many ferries that connect the Scottish mainland with the Northern Isles of Orkney and Shetland. Aberdeen also has two universities, and a large student population.

St Andrews is a small, but busy town in north-east Fife. The royal burgh's economy is centred around the golf industry, with St Andrews being regarded as the home of the modern game. The University of St Andrews (the oldest in Scotland) has colleges located throughout the town.

Dundee is known as the "City of Discovery" and is the home of Scott of the Antarctic's ship the RRS Discovery. Dundee has two universities. It has a Jute museum called Verdant Works, an Anchor Point of ERIH - The European Route of Industrial Heritage.

Perth is a small but historic town on the east coast, which stands on the River Tay. Perth is known for its abundant parkland. Close by is the village of Scone, ancient capital of Scotland and former home to Scottish kings.

Inverness is the administrative centre for the Highlands, close to Loch Ness and serves as a transport hub for much of the Highlands, with rail and bus services departing here to much of the northern and west Highlands. It is a popular destination for tourists wishing to explore the north of Scotland.

Ayrshire offers wonderful scenery, outdoor activities, enthralling history with links to William Wallace, Robert the Bruce and Scotland's best known poet, Robert Burns. Ayrshire also offers some of the finest golf courses in the world (32 in total).

Other areas which are popular for tourists include the Highlands and the Hebrides, such as the Isle of Skye. Perthshire, the Scottish Borders and Orkney and Shetland are also popular tourism destinations. Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in the United Kingdom, but there are many other significant mountains in Scotland, though by international standards all the mountains are relatively small. The Cuillin on the Isle of Skye offer some challenging climbs, such as the Inaccessible Pinnacle. Scotland also has amusement parks. One such park is M&Ds in the Strathclyde area. Scotland also has many lochs, including Loch Lomond, and Loch Ness, which is considered by some to be the home of the Loch Ness monster. There are also many rivers, which are good for salmon and fly fishing. These include the Tay, Tweed, Don, and Dee. Scotland's best known export is Scotch Whisky and over a million visitors a year enjoy a tour around its Whisky distilleries [26]. Scotland has some good hunting, especially deer and grouse. Scotland is also the home of golf, with many historic and famous courses including, St Andrews, Gleneagles, Royal Troon, Carnoustie, and Muirfield. There are hundreds of other courses in the country.

Conclusion

In conclusion we must admit that Scotland is a very independent country, though it is a part of Great Britain. Scotland has its own history, Parliament, consistent economy, well-developed system of education. There are 15 Scottish universities, some of which are amongst the oldest in the world. These include the University of St Andrews, the University of Glasgow, the University of Aberdeen, the University of Edinburgh, Heriot-Watt University, Robert Gordon University, and the University of Dundee -- many of which are ranked amongst the best in the UK. Scotland retains Scots Law, its own unique legal system, based on Roman law, which combines features of both civil law and common law. Tourism is widely recognised as a key contributor to the Scottish economy. Scotland has a western style open mixed economy that is closely linked with the rest of Europe and the wider world. Traditionally, the Scottish economy has been dominated by heavy industry underpinned by the shipbuilding in Glasgow, coal mining and steel industries. Petroleum related industries associated with the extraction of North Sea oil have also been important employers from the 1970s, especially in the north east of Scotland. Scotland's primary exports include whisky, electronics and financial services. The United States, Netherlands, Germany, France and Spain constitute the country's major export markets. The culture of Scotland refers to the patterns of human activity and symbolism associated with Scotland and the Scottish people. Some elements of Scottish culture, such as its separate national church, are protected in law as agreed in the Treaty of Union, and other instruments. Scottish culture, like that of the many Northern European nations (for example Ireland and England), has been described as a pub culture or drinking culture, whereby consumption of alcohol has deep rooted tradition - along with pride of working class heritage, which is common in all of Britain. Some Scottish people, like the Welsh, many English, Irish, Manx and Cornish, are of Celtic origin. There is no doubt that Scottish culture offers a rich, diverse and colorful mix of creativity and heritage. Scotland also has its own unique family of languages and dialects, helping to foster a strong sense of "Scottish-ness". This country retains its own national church, separate from that of England. Scotland has a literary heritage dating back to the early Middle Ages. Scotland literature has earned worldwide fame for its super stories and lucid languages. Robert Burns, Sir Walter Scott and Arthur Conan Doyle are the renowned names in the world of Scotland literature. The Scots are very proud of their country, nationalistic even; this is proven by their history and we noticed it ourselves also. Scotland has been always fighting for its independence. In 1999, a devolved legislature, the Scottish Parliament, was founded with authority over many areas of home affairs following a successful referendum in 1997. In 2011, the Scottish National Party (SNP) won an overall majority in parliament and intends to hold a referendum on independence in the autumn of 2014. We can see that people are protecting their identity, language, currency, culture. They face the future with confidence, improving present situation and respecting and valuing the history of their country.

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