Modal verbs

In reported speech (in past-time contexts) must remains unchanged in all of its meanings.

E.g. He said he must do it without delay.

He said I mustn't tell anyone about it.

The doctor told her that she must eat.

They believed the story must be true.

Parallel to must, had to + infinitive is also used occasionally in reported speech to express obligation.

E.g. He said he had to make a telephone call at once.

In this case had to is close to must in meaning: it does not include the idea of a realized action but refers to some future moment.

Ought to

The modal verb ought to has only one form which is used “with reference to the present of future. In reported speech it remains unchanged. Ought is always followed by the infinitive with to.

Ought to has the following meanings:

obligation, which in different contexts may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as advisability and desirability,

E.g. You ought to say a word or two about yourself.

Ought she to warn him?

He oughtn't to mention it to anybody.

“It doesn't mean you ought to marry a Yankee.” He persisted.(F. Scott Fitzgerald)

In this meaning ought to is possible in all kinds of sentences, though it is felt to be awkward in questions where should is preferred.

Generally ought to refers an action to the future and is followed by the simple infinitive. With reference to the present ought to is used with the continuous infinitive or with the simple infinitive if the verb is stative.

E.g. At your age you ought to be earning your living.

You ought to feel some respect for your elders.

It was getting darker and darker - all those tomb-stones ought to be repainted, sure enough, only that would spoil them, of course. (F. Scott Fitzgerald).

“If you care for him you certainly oughtn't to belittle yourself in front of him,” said Ailie in a flash, her head high. (F. Scott Fitzgerald)

In combination with the perfect infinitive ought to in the affirmative form shows that a desirable action was no fulfilled.

E.g. You ought to have chosen a more suitable time to tell me this news.

In the negative form ought to in combination with the Perfect Infinitive shows that an undesirable action was fulfilled

E.g. I'm sorry. I ought to have said it.

You oughtn't to have married her, David. It was a great mistake.

supposition implying strong probability.

E.g. Oughtn't you to go and have your tiffin?

The of ought to in this case is not very common as this meaning is normally rendered by must: He/You ought to know it (=he is/you are supposed to know it). You ought to be ashamed of yourself.

Shall and should

Historically, shall and should were two forms of the same verb expressing obligation. She was the present tense of the Indicative Mood; should was the Subjunctive Mood. But later they came to express different meanings and in present-day English their use is not parallel - they are treated as two different verbs.

Shall

In modern English the modal meaning of obligation in shall is always combined with the function of an auxiliary verb of the future tense.

Shall is still used to express obligation with the second and third persons, but at present it is not common in this meaning in spoken English. Its use, as a rule, is restricted to formal or even archaic style and mainly found in subordinate clauses, i.e. it is structurally dependent.

E.g. It has been decided that the proposal shall not be opposed.

This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher's consent.

At present, however, this meaning of obligation, somewhat modified, is found with the second and third persons in sentences expressing promise, threat or warning. It is used in affirmative and negative sentences and combined with the simple infinitive.

E.g. You shall have my answer tomorrow.

“You shall stay just where you are!” his mother cried angrily

He shall do as I say.

The meaning of obligation may also be traced in interrogative sentences where shall is used with the first and third persons to ask after the will of the person addressed. In this case it is also followed by the simple infinitive.

E.g. Shall I get you some fresh coffee, Miss Flour?

Who shall answer the telephone, Major?

Sentences of this kind are usually rendered in Russian with the help of the infinitive: Принести Вам ещё кофе? Кому отвечать по телефону? etc.

Should

In modern English the modal verb should is used with reference to the present or future. It remains unchanged in reported speech.

Should has the following meanings:

obligation, which in different contexts may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as advisability and desirability,

E.g. It's late. You should go to bed.

You shouldn't miss the opportunity.

Should I talk to him about it?

He said that the status of the Greek minority should be viewed in the light of political balance. (Moscow news)

He said that this was not a temporary problem. Lasting arrangements should be made. (W. Faulkner)

Should in this meaning is found in all kinds of sentences. Like ought to it generally refers an action to the future and followed by the simple infinitive.

With reference to the resent should is used with the Continuous Infinitive or with the simple infinitive if the verb is stative.

E.g. You shouldn't be sitting in home. Move out of it into the garden.

You shouldn't feel so unhappy over such trifles.

Should may be combined with the Perfect Infinitive. In this case the meaning of the combination depends on whether the sentence is affirmative or negative. In an affirmative sentence should + Perfect Infinitive indicates that a desirable action was not carried out.

E.g. He looks very ill. He should have stayed at home.

He should have told me about it himself.

In a negative sentence should + Perfect Infinitive serves to show that an undesirable action was carried out.

E.g. Oh, John, you shouldn't have done as you did.

They shouldn't have concealed it from us.

supposition implying strong probability,

E.g. The film should be very good as it is starring first-class actors.

The use of should in this case does not seem to be very common as this meaning is usually rendered by must.

In addition to the above mentioned cases showing the independent use of should this verb occurs in certain object clauses where it depends on the lexical character of the predicate verb in the principal clause and in adverbial clauses of condition, purpose and concession.

E.g. I suggest hat you should stay here as if nothing had happened.

“It's important,” I broke out, “that the people should know what we've just heard.”

She was terrified lest they should goon talking about her.

Should may have a peculiar function - it may be used for emotional coloring. In this function it may be called the emotional should. The use of the emotional should is structurally dependent.

It is found in the following cases:

In special emphatic constructions where a simple predicate is not used:

in rhetorical questions beginning with why,

E.g. Why should I do it? (С какой стати я буду это делать?)

Why shouldn't you invite him? (Почему бы Вам его не пригласить?)

in object clauses beginning with why,

E.g. I don't know why he should want to see him (Я не знаю зачем он ему нужен)

I don't see why we shouldn't make friends.

in attributive clauses beginning with why after the noun reason,

E.g. There is no reason why they shouldn't get on very well together (Нет причины почему бы им не ладить дpуг с другом).

in constructions of the following kind,

E.g. The door opened and who should come in but Tom (Дверь открылась, и, кто бы Вы думали, вошёл? Никто иной, как Том)

As I was crossing the street, whom should I meet but Aunt Ann.

in the set phrase How should I know? (Почём я знаю?) In the above cases should may be followed by the Perfect infinitive which in simple sentences refers the action to the past and in complex sentences shows that the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause.

E.g. I went into business with her as her partner. Why shouldn't I have done it? (Почему бы мне не сделать это?)

He didn't know why he should have expected them to look different (Он не знал почему ожидал увидеть их с другими).

In certain types of subordinate clauses where should + infinitive is interchangeable with a simple predicate in the Indicative Mood:

in object clauses after expressions of regret, surprise, sometimes pleasure or displeasure,

E.g. I`m sorry that you should think so badly of me (Мне жаль, что Вы так плохо обо мне думаете).

He was little surprise that Ann should speak so frankly about it.

I'm content that you should think so.

The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed here. The Perfect infinitive is used to show that the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause.

E.g. I am sorry that you should have had a row with Kate about it.

He was annoyed that they should have asked him that.

in object clauses following the principal clause with it as a formal subject,

E.g. It is absurd that such things should happen to a family like theirs (Нелепо, чтобы такие вещи случались в такой семье, как их).

In the principal clause we find such expressions as it is wonderful (absurd, monstrous, natural, odd, queer, singular, strange, terrible and the like), it infuriated, (outraged, puzzled, startled, surprised and the like) me, it struck me as funny, etc. We also find he following interrogative expressions in the principal clause: is it possible (likely, probable)? , it is not possible (likely, probable), it is impossible (improbable, unlikely).

As we see from the above examples, the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed here either.

If the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause, the Perfect infinitive is used after should.

E.g. It is inconceivable that Mrs. C. should have written such a letter.

It is much better that you should have found everything out before it's too late.

in constructions of the following kind,

E.g. That it should come to this! (И до чего дело дошло!)

To think that it should come to this! (Подумать только, до чего дело дошло!)

To think that it should have happened to me! (Подумать только, что это произошло со мной!)

Some literary examples:

It is good that the Government should have recognized the opportunity and the obligations so clearly. (E. Hermingway)

To sum it up, it should be said that as compared to the use of a simple predicate in the Indicative Mood, the use of should + infinitive gives the statement emotional coloring such as surprise, amazement, irritation, indignation, pleasure, displeasure etc, i.e. it emphasizes the speaker's personal attitude towards the facts stated in the sentence. The Indicative Mood represents these acts in a more matter-of-fact way.

Must, should and ought to compared.

All the three verbs serve to express obligation. Must, however, sounds more forceful, peremptory.

E.g. You must do it at once (Вы должны сделать это немедленно!).

Both should and ought to express obligation, advisability and desirability and are used when must would sound too peremptory.

E.g. You should do /ought to do/ it at once (Вам следует/надо/нужно сделать это немедленно).

Should and ought to are very much alike in meaning and are often interchangeable. In using ought to, however, we lay more stress on the meaning of moral obligation, whereas should is common in instruction and corrections.

E.g. You ought to help him; he is in trouble.

You should use the definite article in this sentence.

Must, ought to and should serve to express supposition implying strong probability. Must, however, seems to be in more frequent use than the other two verbs.

Should + Perfect Infinitive, ought to + Perfect Infinitive and was, were to + Perfect Infinitive compared.

Should + Perfect infinitive and ought to + Perfect infinitive show that the action has not been carried out though it was desirable; was/were to + Perfect infinitive indicate an action that has not been carried out though it was planned.

E.g. You should have helped him.

You ought to have warned him (Now she is in trouble).

He was to have arrived last week (but his plans were upset by some cause or other).

Will

The verb will has the following forms: will - the present tense and would - the past tense. The latter form is used in two ways:

in past-time context to express an actual fact and

in present-time context to express unreality or as a milder and more polite form of will.

Will and would may also be used as verbs of full predication (not modal verbs). Will may be used as a regular verb (wills, willed). It means проявлять волю, заставлять, внушать. Would s a defective verb. It is used with reference to the present and means “ желать”. It is found mainly in poetry and like the verb to wish is followed by an object clause: I would I were a careless child.

While shall and should are treated as two different verbs in modern English, will and would are considered to be the forms of the same verb, its original meaning being that of volition (Volition is a general term which includes such meanings as willingness, readiness, consent, intention and determination to perform an action). However, in some of their meanings the use of will is parallel only to would which denotes an actual fact in the past; in other meanings will is found alongside would which expresses unreality in the present or serves as a milder or more polite form of will.

The use of will and would which denotes an actual fact in the past is parallel in the following cases:

when they express habitual or recurrent actions,

E.g. She will (would) sit for hours under the old oak tree looking at the beautiful country around her (…любит/любила сидеть, обычно сидит/сидела …)

In addition to indicating an habitual action, will (would) in this case implies willingness, personal interest on the part of the doer of the action. Will (would) in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences and is followed by he simple infinitive.

In present-time context will in this meaning is not common. In past-time context would is mainly characteristic of literary style.

E.g. Then there were weekends when he would ride over to the house of one farmer or another and spend a couple of nights on the hills.

when they express refusal to perform an action,

E.g. The doctor knows I won't be operated on.

He was wet through but he wouldn't change.

“Clark,” she said softly, “I wouldn't change you for the world”. (F. Scott Fitzgerald)

This meaning is found in negative sentences; will (would) is followed by the simple infinitive. In Russian it is usually rendered as никак не хочу, ни за что не хотел.

when they are used with lifeless things to show hat a thing fails to perform its immediate function,

E.g. My fountain pen won't (wouldn't) write.

The door won't (wouldn't) open.

In this meaning will (would) is found in negative sentences and is followed by the simple infinitive. In Russian it is usually rendered as никак не пишет (не писала), никак не открывается (не открывалась) and the like.

when they are used with the first person to express will, intention or determination,

E.g. “Damn it!” he thought, “I'm going to get out of this hole. I will make money. I am an Englishman and I will suffer no priest to interfere in my business”.

“I said I would do anything for him. We decided that we wouldn't interfere”.

This meaning is found in affirmative and negative sentences. The present tense will, in addition to expressing its modal meaning, serves to refer an action to the future; the past tense would is generally used in reported speech and also serves to refer an action to the future but in this case it is viewed from a past moment.

The use of will and would which expresses unreality in the present or serves as a milder or more polite form of will is parallel in the following cases:

in interrogative sentences where they express willingness, consent,

E.g. Will you dine with me tomorrow, Lewis?

“Won't you sit down”? said doctor.

You'll forgive me, won't you?

in clauses of condition introduced by if where they also express willingness, consent,

E.g. “It's about forty minutes' walk from ere and if you'll come now I'll go with you” he said.

No, we are not going to quarrel at all if you'll only let me talk.

Mr. Marlowe? If you will come this way, please? (R. Chandler) (Сюда, пожалуйста!)

In both cases will (would) is followed by the simple infinitive and the action always refers to the future.

Both interrogative and conditional sentences are often actually polite requests in this case. There is hardly any difference between the use of will and would here; the role of would is to make the request still more polite.

The use of will and would is not parallel in the following cases:

Will may be used to express supposition with reference to; the present or to the future in combination with the simple infinitive, or to the past in combination with the Perfect infinitive. This meaning is found with the second and third persons.

E.g. This will be the school, I believe.(Это, по-видимому, и есть школа).

You will have heard the news, I'm sure (Я полагаю, Вы уже слышали новость).

It should be noted that the use of will in this meaning is not common.

Would may be used rather sarcastically to express that something was to be expected. It is found in affirmative and negative sentences.

E.g. “Auntie Meg has been very brave”. “Yes, she would be brave”. (That was to be expected of her under the circumstances).

“I don't understand him and I don't approve of is decision”. “No, you wouldn't”. (I did not expect you would).

The law wouldn't call it a murder if I shot a thief entering my house by force. (W. De Mille)

This meaning can be rendered in Russian as Этого и следовало ожидать.

Note the use of will in the following sentences, e.g.:

Boys will be boys. (Мальчишки остаются мальчишками).

Accidents will happen.

phrases with will and would:

Will not have (won't have) followed by an object and an infinitive without to means “I'll see to it that it does not happen”.

E.g. “I will not (won't) have you speak to me like that, her voice came sharply.

Both would rather (`d rather) and would sooner (`d sooner) followed by an infinitive without to mean `to prefer'.

E.g. “I'd rather do it myself” he said .

He'd sooner die than let me think he was a failure.

Would … mind in interrogative sentences may also express a polite request: Would you mind getting me a cup of tea?

Would also occurs in certain subordinate clauses where it is structurally dependent.

E.g. I wish the train would stop for a moment.

I wish they wouldn't insist on it.

This modal verb will - would is more often used in literature. Here are several examples on its usage.

E.g. Senor Montevalde had never faced a bull without the protection of a stout fence, and never would. (F. Harvey)

This Velma was an entertainer, a singer. You wouldn't know her? I don't suppose you went there much.(R. Chandler)

Look where we would there was no rock or tree (O. Wilde).

“I'll speak to her and tell her to lay off.” - “If you would.” (A. Christie) (Будьте любезны!)

“And what would you be doing, my dears?” she said. “What brings you to Gipsy's Acre?” (A. Christie) (Что бы это вы могли тут делать…..)

Sometimes the boys would play a trick on their teacher (M. Spark).

It would be impossible to build a bridge without knowing it.(W. Faulkner)

Need

The modal verb need may be used either as a defective or as a regular verb.

As a defective one need has only one form, which is the present tense. In reported speech it remains unchanged. It is followed by the infinitive without to.

Need expresses necessity. When reference is made to the present or future it is followed by the simple infinitive. It is used in negative and interrogative sentences. In interrogative sentences need usually implies that there is no necessity of performing the action.

E.g. You needn't be afraid of me.

You need not meet him unless you'd like to. Need I repeat it?

Occasionally it may be found in affirmative sentences but it is not typical.

In negative sentences it is not always the verb need that is in the negative form; the negation may be found elsewhere in the sentence.

E.g. I don't think we need give her any more of our attention. I need hardly say that I agree with you.

In combination with the Perfect infinitive need express an action which has been performed though it was unnecessary. It implies a waste of time or effort.

E.g. You needn't have come. The deal is off.

It was obvious. You needn't have protested. We needn't have told him a lie even if we didn't want to tell him the truth.

As a regular verb need can have all the necessary forms including the verbal. It also expresses necessity. It is followed by the infinitive with to and is mainly used in interrogative and negative sentences (like the defective need).

E.g. He didn't need to explain.

You don't need to tell me that you are sorry.

Did you need to read all those books?

It should be noted that this need is in more common use than the defective one, particularly in American English.

E.g. He needs a new coat.

Does he need my help? He does not need anything.

Dare

The modal verb dare may also be used as a regular and as a defective verb.

Dare as a defective verb has two forms which are the present and the past forms. It means `to have the courage or impertinence to do something' Its use is very restricted. In present-day English it is mainly found in questions beginning with how which are actually exclamations and in negative sentences.

E.g. How dare you say that!

How dare she come here!

How many years is it since we danced together? I dare not think.

He dared not look at her.

Dare as a regular verb has all the necessary forms including the verbal. It has he same meaning as the defective dare. Its use is also restricted. It is mainly found in negative sentences.

E.g. He does not dare to come here again.

She told me she had never dared to ask him about it.

No one dared to live in the house since.

I dare say.

E.g. I dare say I looked a little confused.

My son is not in town but I dare say he will be before long.

In Russian this phrase is usually rendered as очень возможно, пожалуй, полагаю, осмелюсь сказать.

Shouldn't + Perfect Infinitive , oughtn't to + Perfect Infinitive and needn't + Perfect Infinitive compared

Shouldn't + Perfect infinitive and oughtn't to + Perfect infinitive show that an action has been carried out though it was undesirable; needn't + Perfect infinitive indicates that an action has been carried out though it was unnecessary.

E.g. You shouldn't have come (for you are ill);

You oughtn't to have written to them (because your letter upsets );

You needn't have come (as the work is finished);

You needn't have written to them (because I sent them a telegram).

Final conclusion

I will formulate few basic grammatical rules applying to modal verbs:

All verbs are NEVER used with other auxiliary verbs such as do, does, did etc. The negative is formed simply by adding “not” after the verb; questions are formed by inversion of the verb and subject.

2. Modal verbs NEVER change form: you can never add an “-s” or

“-ed”, for example.

3. Modal verbs are NEVER followed by to, with the exception of ought

to.

4. Modal verbs are used in conversation. In the past it is possible to find

them only in reported speech. The only exceptions are the Past Tense

forms could, would, had, was and might which maybe used not only

in conversations but also in narration.

So, as you can see there are in Modern English these modal verbs: ought to, must, shall, should, will, need, dare: to have and to be can also be used as modal verbs. May express possibility/high probability (97%) and permission (3%). The modals used to express permission are can (58%), may (16%), could (13%), and might (13%), could (17%), will (17%). The three most frequent modals are would (28% of all modal occurrences), could (17%), and will (17%).

Bibliography

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“Грамматика английского языка. Пособие для студентов педагогических институтов.” Под ред. Ильиша.

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“The English verb. A new grammar for every one”. А.К. Кравченко, Л.В. Ушакова и др. Иркутск, 1997.

“Modality in Modern English”. Е.М. Гордон и др. М., 1968.

“Модальные глаголы в английском языке”. Е.А. Зверева.

“Составные глаголы в современном английском языке”. М.Д. Кузнецов и др. М., 1959.

“Пособие по морфологии английского языка”. Е.А. Корнеева. М. “Высшая школа”, 1974.

“Модальные глаголы в английской речи: учебное пособие для студентов институтов и факультетов иностранных языков”. А.П. Грызулина. М., “Высшая школа”, 1986.

“Английский глагол”. Т.А. Расторгуева, И.П. Верховская и др. М., 1987.

“Очерки по сопоставительной грамматике русского и английского языков”. А.И. Смирницкий. М., “Высшая школа”, 1975.

“Морфология английского языка”. А.И. Смирницкий. М., 1959.

“Наклонения английского языка”. М.В. Смолина. М., 1977.

“Учебник английского языка”. Е.К. Старщникова и др. М., 1979.

“Английский язык для студентов старших курсов”. Г.А. Попова и др. М., 1961.

“Учебник английского языка”. С.В. Понтович. М., 1960.

“Трудности перевода общественно-политического текста с английского на русский”. Т.А. Зражевская, Т.И. Гуськова. М., 1986.

“Новое в английской грамматике”. Г.А. Вейхман. М., 1990.

“Учебник английского языка”. Т.И. Арбекова, А.Д. Бодрова. М., 1968.

Цитируемые произведения:

1.“The time machine”. Herbert G. Wells.

2.“The Painted Veil”. W. Somerset Maugham.

3.“His Last Bow”. Arthur Conan Doyle.

4. “The Fun They Had”. I. Asimov.

5. “The Green Door”. O. Henry..

6. “The Ice Palace”. F. Scott Fitzgerald.

7. “Donkey”. A. Marshall.

8. “Essential English”. C. Eckersley.

9. “You Should Have Seen the Mess”. M. Spark.

10. “The Witness For The Prosecution”. A. Christie.

11. “The Portrait of Dorian Gray”. O. Wilde.

12. “Ruthless”. W. De Mille.

13. “The Birthday Present”. B.J. Chute.

14. “The Bear”. W. Faulkner.

15. “Evelyne”. J. Joyce.

16. “The Cat in the Rain”. E. Hemingway.

Newspapers:

1. “Morning Star”;

2. “Moscow News”;

3. “Daily Worker”.