The comparative typology of English, Russian and Uzbek languages

Investigating grammar of the English language in comparison with the Uzbek phonetics in comparison English with Uzbek. Analyzing the speech of the English and the Uzbek languages. Typological analysis of the phonological systems of English and Uzbek.

Рубрика Иностранные языки и языкознание
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Язык английский
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Inflexions word-forming suffixes express different morphological categories.

Structurally morphemes fall under three types: a) free morphemes, b) bound morphemes, c) send-bound morphemes.

A free morpheme is the stem of the word, a great many free morphemes are root morphemes. (e.g. London-er, sports-man-ship). A bound morphemes for they are alwaysmake a part of the word. (e.g. - ness, - ship, - dom, - dis, - pre, un-, чи, паз, - дон, бе-, сер, по,) some root morphemes also belong to the class of bound morphemes.

1.5 The problem of Parts of speech

A word is known as the smallest naming unit of the language. According to L. Bloomfield, word is a minimum free form. Close observation and comparison of words clearly shows that a great number of words have a composite nature and are made up of smaller units, each possessing sound-form and meaning. In other words, the term word denotes the basic unit of a given language resulting from the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a grammatical employment is a word is therefore simultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit.

The words of every language fall into classes which are called parts of speech. The problem of parts of speech is one of the controversial problems of modern linguistics. The theoretical side of this problem is the subject matter of the theoretical grammar. therefore we should base our comparison of system of parts of speech on the generally recognized (acknowledged) opinions of grammarians.

In order to make easier to learn the language the grammarians usually divide the word-stock of the language into some subclasses called in linguists the parts of speech.

The main principles of classifying words into parts of speech are: their meaning, form and function, that is to say the words of any language differ from each other in meaning in form and in function. different parts of speech have different lexical meanings.

e.g. verbs denote process or state; nouns express the names of objects, adjectives their properties…

Some parts of speech have different grammatical categories. Verbs have the category of mood, tense, aspect, voice, person, number etc., noun - case, number, adjective - comparison, etc. The parts of speech also differ from each other in their syntactic function; e.g. verbs are used in the sentence structure as predicates, nouns-as subjects, adjectives-as attributes etc.

All words of the comparing languages may be divided into three main groups:

1. Notional words

2. Structural words

3. Independent elements

Notional words have distinct lexical meanings and perform independent syntactic functions in the sentence structure, they serve as primary or secondary parts of the sentence. To this group belong the following parts of speech: Noun, verb, adjective, pronouns, numerals, statives and adverbs. It should be kept in mind that statives in Uzbek are otter interchanged with adjectives and not treated as an independent part of speech.

Structural words differ from the notional words semantically their lexical meaning is of a more general character than that of the notional words. Moreover they sometimes altogether avid it that they are independent syntactic function in the sentence structure but serve either to express various relations between the words in a sentence (e.g. trees in the garden, Tom and Joe, etc.) or to specify the meaning of the words (e.g. there is a book on the table, the book on the table is mine, etc.)

The following parts of speech are to be treated as structural words: articles, particles (only, solely, exclusively mainly) prepositions and conjunctions. Articles and prepositions are individual character of English differentiating it from Uzbek as the functions of these parts of speech in Uzbek are performed by other elements of the language.

Independent elements are words which are characterized by their peculiar meanings of various kind. They usually have no grammatical connections with the sentence in which they occur, i.e. they do not perform any syntactic function in the sentence. e.g. They certainly will come to the party.

Sometimes independent elements can even serve as sentences themselves; e.g. Yes, No, Alas.

Independent class of words include modal words, interjections, words of affirmation and negation.

It is noteworthy that the decision of words into parts of speech can be accepted only with certain reservation there are words which cannot be classed among any of the above motioned parts of speech such as a please, anyway ?ар ?алай.

Typological categories of English and Uzbek words

The words of any language are characterized by their ability to express definite notions existing in this society, thus changing their forms. Most of the notions existing in the society have common peculiarities, i.e. they have universal character.

Among the linguistic categories which can be traced in most of the languages of the world we can see the categories which display typologically general character but can be expressed in different languages in different ways. Studying these linguistic facts figuring out their similarities and differences is much of importance for the man of letters, especially for the graduates of the language faculties of universities who are going to become English teachers and interpreters in near future.

For instance, such linguistic notions as case, gender person, tense, voice, possession, etc. are of general character for the comparing languages, but they may be expressed by typological different means of the language. In this chapter we try to generalize the main means of expressing the notions which are of peculiar type of the comparing languages.

1.6 Typological category of case

The system of grammatical forms indicating the syntactic relations of nouns (or pronouns) is usually treated as the category of case, in other words, case is a grammatical form which takes part in the formation of the paradigm of nouns (or pronouns). Grammarians seem to be divided in their opinions as to the case system of the English nouns. The most common view is that they have only two case: common (subject) and possessive (genitive) cases. The common case is characterized by a zero morpheme (suffix) e.g. child, boy, student, ir. and the possessive case by the indexing is and its phonetic variants as [s] and [z].

The Uzbek бош келишиги (common or subject case) corresponds in meaning and function to the English common case both of them are unmarked member of the case opposition and perform similar syntactic function in the sentence structure.

English common case and other five cases of Uzbek are marked members of the case opposition in both languages. The English possessive case is marked by the stiffly is which can sometimes be substituted by the preposition of (e.g. my father's room, the room of may father) and therefore is sometimes called of - genitive - case. This case denotes possession of a thing or a person and in Uzbek it has its correspondence in the Uzbek караткич келишиги which is expressed by the case ending suffix num.

Dealing with notion of possession one should keep in mind that in Uzbek this category may be expressed not only by the nouns but also their antecedents in the pleonastic phrase such as менинг опамб сизнинг паспортингизю. In this case we have to face the problem of redundancy and often try to avoid it using the modified noun only which contains the possessive suffix. e.g. опам кeлди. In this case the suffix of possession can be rendered in English and in Russian by means of special possessive pronouns. e.g. My sister came. Моя сестра пришла.

Meaning and functions of the other Uzbek cases may be denoted in Uzbek either by means of prepositions or by word order. For instance the meaning and function of the Uzbek тушум келиши is expressed in Uzbek by means of the case ending - ши which denotes the object acted upon and it may be expressed in English by means of word order which is characterized in this language to be very strict in comparison with Russian or Uzbek (e.g. курдим кузингни колдим балога, кайга борайин энди давога? - Видел я твои очи черные (и заболел) куда мне теперь идти на лечение?) Some English grammarians O. Curme, M. Doutschbein recognize word order in English as dative case.

Dealing with this case one has to keep in mind the structure of the sentence i.e. the word order in the sentences of the comparing languages - sov (in Uzbek e.g. мен укамни курдим) and svo (in English I saw my brother»)

The Uzbek урин пайт келишиги denotes he place of the thing or a person in the space and it can be rendered in English by means of prepositions at, in, an, by, over, above, among, between, behind etc. (e.g.У:китоб жавонда. The book is in the bookcase.) It should be kept in mind that most of the English preposition may contain (more) additional meaning denoting the place of the thing or a person. (сu in - мчи-behind_ор?асида, between_орасида, under_остида, etc).

The Uzbek жуналиш келишиги denotes the direction of an action performed by means of the case ending_га. It can be rendered in English also by means of prepositions to, at, into, etc. e.g. V(йигит) мактаб - га кетди. He went to school. У ?из менга ?аради. She looked at me.

Чи?иш келишиги of Uzbek nouns denotes the beginning point of the action denoted by the verb. It can be rendered in English by means of preposition from, out of, from under, etc. e.g.:У(?из) Лондон-дан келди. She came from London.У(йигит) сумкаси-дан ?ул?опларини олди. He took his gloves out of his bag.

1.7 Typological category of gender

The typological category of gender consists of the notions of natural (biological sex and the grammatical (formal) gender. The connection of this category with the natural sex is in the animals and birds. It is displayed by the nouns and pronouns in English. (But in Russian it can also expressed by the adjectives and the past simple tense forms of the verbs.) Most of the Uzbek grammar books do not contain any information about the category of gender of Uzbek nouns, because the authors consider Uzbek nouns not to have this category at all.

In accordance with their lexical meanings the nouns of the comparing nouns may be classed as belonging to the masculine, feminine and neuter genders. Names of male beings are usually masculine (e.g.: man, husband, boy, son, nephew, bull, ox, ram(whether), cock, stallion - ота, у?ил, эркак, ?укиз, бу?а, новвос, ?уч?ор, хуроз, ай?ир) and names of female beings are feminine (e.g.: woman, lady, girl, daughter, wife, niece, cow heifer(?унажин), ewe [ju:] (совли?), hen, mare_ауол, хоним, ?из(бола), ?из (фарзанд), хотин, сигир, ?унажин, собли?, макиуон, байтал).All other nouns are said to be neuter gender (e.g.:pencil, flower, rain, bird, sky-?алам, гул, уом?ир, парранда, ?уш, осмон).

Gender finds its formal expression in the replacement of nouns by the personal pronouns in the mind person singular, i.e., she, it.

However there some nouns in English which may be treated as either makes or females. e.g: friend, cousin, doctor, neighbor, worker, etc. The same can be said about the Uzbek terms of kinship e.g.: жиян, ?ариндош, холавачча, ?уда, ?ушни, табиб, ишчи. They are said to be of common (neuter) gender. When there is no need to make distinction of sex the masculine pronoun is used for these nouns.

There are three ways of expressing the category of gender in the comparing languages: morphological, syntactical and lexical. Morphological way of expressing the category of gender is realized by adding suffixes of gender to the stem of the word. It is a highly developed way of expressing gender in Russian by means of suffixes ending in: a) consonants to be masculine, e.g.: дом, стол, праздник; b) vowels as - a, - я to be feminine. e.g.: мама, старуха, тетя; c) vowels-o, - e to be neuter. e.g.: ружъуо, море, окно и т.п.

English has the only suffix - ess which is used to denote feminine gender.e.g.: host-ess, actr-ess, waitr-ess, princ-ess, lion-ess, and tiger-ess. Feminine gender in Uzbek may often be expressed by means of the suffix- a which is supposed to be of Arabic origin e.g.: - раис_а, вазир_а, шоир_а, муаллим_а, котиб_а etc.

In order denote the gender syntactic way is also possible. In this case different kinds of combinations of words are formed in which adjunct word (modifier) usually denotes the sex of the head word. e.g.: man servant - ?арол, amid servant_оксоч, boy friend-ў?ил бола урто?, girl friend-?из бола ўрто?, tom cat_еркак мушук, tabby cat_ур?очи мушук, he-wolf_еркак бўри, she wolf_ур?очи бўри, he goat_така, she goat_она ечки, etc. As is seen from these examples English gender denoted by a syntactic combination (man servant she goat can be expressed in Uzbek both by syntactically and lexically, (?арол, она ечки).

In most cases gender can be expressed lexically, i.e. by the stem of the noun only. e.g.: father_ота, uncle_амаки, niece - (?из) жиян, sister-in-law_келин, lord_жаноб, also names of animals, such as mare_бия, tiger - (арка) йўлбарс, ram-?ўч?ор, etc. Names of people can also denote the gender of the person who owns this name. e.g.: Arthur, Christopher, John - А?маджон, Ба?одир, Ша?обиддин denoting male being and Mary, Christine, Nelly, - Сайера, Мехринисо, Гулоим, etc.

Nouns denoting various kinds of vessels (ship, boat, yacht, life-raft), the noun `car`, as well as the names of countries are sometimes referred to as feminine gender, i.e. by means of `she`. This fact is usually called personification. e.g.:

a. Sam joined the famous whaler `Globe`. She was a ship on which any young man would be proud to sail.

b. England prides herself with her greenness and tidiness.

Such nouns as masculine gender. Nouns like `nature, country, mercy, faith, hope, modesty` are used as feminine gender.

1.8 Typological category of plurality

The system of grammatical forms expressing grammatical degree (number) is termed (called) the category of plurality. This category. In comparing languages the formants indicating this category are usually added to the stem of nouns (or pronouns). WE should distinguish the logical number (degree) and grammatical number. From the logical point of view proper nouns usually denote a single thing or a person. e.g.: John, Собир, London, Тўйтепа, etc. The common nouns are used to denote common type of things, of course, logically more than one.

As we know that the category of plurality denotes more than oneness of things, people or phenomena. Grammatically it can be based in English on the opposition of `zero morpheme and the suffix - s, - en, and root changing abilities of some nouns: i.e. - s, - en, in Uzbek it is based on the opposition of zero morpheme and suffix - лар, i.e. - лар. Among the parts of speech this category is distinguished grammatically by nouns, pronouns and verbs. In comparing languages this category may also be denoted lexically by numerals. (i.e. two, fifteen, thirty, thousand_иккт, ўн беш, ўттиз, минг) Numerals are not used in the grammatical plural forms because in the plural form they became substantive zed i.e. they become nouns (икктлар, олтичилар).

It should be kept in mind that there are languages having `dual` and `trial` numbers pronouns - ic-wif-we where wit denoted a dual number)

Plurality of nouns. Uzbek nouns and pronouns usually denote this number by means of suffix - лар (eg: одам - лар, мутта?ам-лар) Which can sometimes be used also to denote respect to a person who is spoken about. e.g.: Дадамлар келдилар. (But you have to keep in mind that you can't have mote than one father).

English nouns can express the notion of plurality in the following ways:

a) by means of suffixes:

- s, - es (wife-wives, head-heads)

- en (ox-oxen, child-children, brother-brotheren);

- a datum-data, sanatorium-sanatoria, phenomenon-phenomena) etc.

b) by changing the root vowel (man-men, goose-geese)

Plurality of verbs The English verbs can denote the notion of plurality in the following ways:

a) by opposing the finite verbs in the third person singular to the other forms with zero morpheme: live-s live#

b) by means of suppletive forms of auxiliary verbs:

am, is-are; was-were; have-has-had;

The Uzbek verbs usually express plurality by means of the following suffixes:

a) - лар (келди) лар;

б) - миз, - сиз, - гниз, дилар (бора-миз, келадилар);

с) - ш, - иш (кел-ишди);

This category can be expressed by means of personal pronouns in both languages; Cl.: I-we; me-us; he/she/ it-they; In Uzbek:мен-бизж сен-сизлар; у-улар.

Lexically this category may be expressed in both languages with the help of numerals. e.g.: anmy-?зниш, dual_иккилик, majority_кўпчилик, family_оила, pair_жуфт, double_икки (лантирилган), etc.

Plurality can sometimes be expressed by means of prepositions (between, among_орасида, ўртасида)_adverbs (arm-in-arm_йўлланилиб), indefinite pronouns (some_бир неча, анча, бироз), verbs (join-?ўшилмо? бирлашмо?, gathe_тўпламо?), get together - йи?или? unite - бирлашмо?) also by quantitative markers (two-seater, many staged, two-storeyed): and in Uzbek (кўпхад, ?ўшари?, учкўприк).

2.9. Typological category of person

The category of person should be dealt with in close connection with the category of number (plurality). Because in the languages of Indo-European family these categories are expressed by one and the same morpheme simultaneously i.e. a morpheme denoting number at the same time expresses person as well. For instance, in Latin the morpheme-n+ in such forms as amant, habent, Legunt, amabant, habebunt, etc. expresses simultaneously the third person and the plural number.

In the comparing languages the category of person is a characteristic feature of pronouns and verbs. They (languages) make distinction between the three classes of personal pronouns denoting respectively the person(s) spoken to (the second person) and the person(s) (or things) spoken about (the third person).

singular plural

1_person-the speaker the speaker and same other people

2_person-a person spoken to more than one people spoken to

3_person-a person of a thing spoken about some people or things spoken about

The category of person in verbs is represented by the 1st, 2nd, 3rd person and it expresses the relations between the speaker, the person or people spoken to and other person or people spoken about. However this system doesn't hold good for the modern English verb and this is for two reasons:

1) there is no distinction of persons in the plural number. Thus the form live may within the plural number be connected with a subject of any person e.g.

you} live

we

they

2) there is no distinction of numbers in the 1_and 2 - person. Thus the form «live» in these person may refer to both one and more than one subject. Thus the opposition all other persons expresses relation of the 3rd with any person of both numbers i.e. stem-s \ stem - i. The marked member of the position differs greatly from that of imparked in form and in meaning, It should be kept in mind that in the Subjunctive mood that form «live» denotes any person of both numbers.

The ending `s' having four meanings to express simultaneously is of course a synthetic feature standing rather by itself in the general structure of Modern English.

There a special subclass of the English verbs which do not fit into the system of person and number described above and they must be treated separately both in a practical study of the language and in theoretical analysis. They are called modal verbs `can, may, must' etc. Being delective verbs they do not admit any suffix to their stem and do not denote any person or number and usually accompany the notional verbs in speech giving them additional meanings of notions as ability permission, necessity or obligation etc.

The verb «be» has a system of its own both in the present indicative and in the past

I

Am

Was

He

Is

Was

She

Is

Was

It

Is

Was

You

Are

Were

They

Are

Were

There is own more special class of the English verbs called impersonal verbs. Having the suffix - s in the third person singular of the present simple they do not denote any person or thing as the doer of the action. Such verbs usually denote natural phenomena such as to rain, to hail to snow to drizzle, to thunder, to lighten, to warm up, e.g. it often rains in autumn. It is thundering and lightening.

The personal system of the Uzbek verbs is as follows

Indic mood

Person

Singular

Plural

Past

I

Bordim

bordik

II

Bording

Bordinrizlar

III

Bordi

Bordilar borishdi

Present

I

boraman

Boramiz

II

Boras an

Borasiz(lar)

III

Boradi

Boradilar

Future

I

Boraman bormoqchiman

Boramiz bormoqchimiz

II

Borasan bormpqchisan

Boramiz bormoqchimiz

III

Boradi bormoqchi

Boradilar borishmoqchi

Imperative mood

I

Boray

Boraylik

II

Borgin

Boringlar, boringiz

III

Borishsin

Boringizlar

In Uzbek we have no the so called modal verbs and impersonal verbs as it is understood in English or Russian (дождит, смеркается, темнеет, похолодало). The functions of the modal verbs are performed in Uzbek by means of the adjectives such as зарур, керак, даркор, лозим etc. As to the impersonal verbs in Uzbek we use the so called impersonal verbs which are combined only with one and the nouns denoting the names of natural phenomena, such as кор, ёмгир, дул, etc. e.g.: Ёмгир ёгади, чакмок чакди.

Dealing with the category of person attention must be to the use of the pronominal forms in transposition. The value of such 'metaphors' may be traced in many modern languages. The first to be mentioned in English is the use of the personal pronouns 'we, you, they' in patterns where they are synonymous with the formal generic 'one' which denotes anyone who occurs in a definite situation. Semantically it corresponds to the Uzbek generic words as 'одам, киши, инсон. e.g.:

You (we) don ' (know what to do in such a situation.

One doesn't know what to do in such a situation.

Бундай холатда нима килишингни билмайсан киши

Инсон зоти борки яратгани унутиб фарзанди томон интилади.

The so called 'editorial 'we' (Lat. plural is modestial) is well for instance, as used in many modern languages by authors of scientific papers, monographs or articles in newspapers, etc. The pronoun 'we' is commonly used in proverbs, e.g.:

We shall see what we shall see.

We never know the value of the water till the well is dry,

Kuduq qurimaguncha (ariqdan oqqan) suvni qadrini bilmaymiz

Compare the Uzbek proverbs which are also addressed to anyone who appears in a situation, e.g.

Nima eksang shuni o'rasan.

Sar qdrini zargar biladi.

Bilib turib bilmaslikka olamiz.

Expressive affect of great subtlety will be found in the use of the pronoun 'we' in such examples;

`I say' said Hurstwood, as they came up the theatre lobby, we are exceedingly charming this evening.

'How do we feel today?' said the doctor facing the patient.

2.10. Typological categories of tense and aspect

Tense is the form of the verb which indicates time of the action from the point of view of the moment of speech, hi English we distinguish three tenses; past, present and past.

Past tense denotes an action which has taken place at a definite time before the moment of speech.

Present tense denotes a regular or recurrent action happening around the moment of speech.

Future tense denotes an action which will or going to happen after the moment of speech.

The English verbs also distinguish the category of aspect continuous process. The notion of aspect can also be described as a form of the verb that shows habituality, continuance or completion of the action or state expressed by the root of the verb. In Uzbek grammars aspect is not studied as a separate category of the verb as it not always expressed distinctly as it seems because of the lack, of the analytical forms.

In the comparing languages the categories of tense and aspect are so closely merged together that it is impossible to treat them separately. One and the same form of the verb serves to express tense and aspect at the same time and therefore they should be regarded as a 'tense - aspect forms 'of the verb.

In the comparing languages we distinguish three aspects of the verb forms; Simple (Common or Indefinite), Continuous and Perfect aspects. Combining with all the tense forms of the verb they form the so called 'tense aspect forms of the verb.

Present simple expresses a usual, recurrent or habitual action that takes place in our everyday life, e.g.

The sun.rises in (lie East.

We love our mothers.

Children go to school at the age of 6.

'They call me Nancy' r said the girl.

I know him well (Stative action)

The verbs in the present simple may often be accompanied by adverbs of frequency such as often, sometimes, usually, seldom, never, etc. indicating habitual action. The main indicator of the English verb forms in the present simple is the opposite 'live | live - s'. (See the preceding chapter.)

As has been mentioned above Past simple denotes an action which happened at a definite time before the moment of speech. Definite time of the action may be clarified by means of such time expressions as 'yesterday, last week, two years ago, when I was a child, etc. The main indicator of the verb form in the past simple of the English verbs is the formant '-ed' (for the regular verbs) and the change of the root vowels (or consonants) for the irregular verbs, e.g.; live - d, help - ed, give - gave, send - sent.

(As to the verb forms in Uzbek see the table in the chapter dealing with the category of person.)

The verbs in the Future Simple, as has been mentioned above, indicate the action which will or going to happen after the moment of speech. The main indicators of the future action is the auxiliaries - will (shall), and going to' which usually precede the infinitive,

e.g.: Give me your suitcase, please, I will carry it for you.

I'm going to visit my grandfather on Sunday.

Present Continuous denotes an action happening now, i.e. at the moment of speech. In English the predicate verb is formed by means of the auxiliary verb

(be - Participle I.) of the notional verb which correspond to the Uzbek verb forms in the example of the verb 'bor':

I person

Singular

Аяпман

Мокдаман

Plural

Аяпмиз

Мокдамиз

II person

Singular

Аяпсан

Мокдасан

Plural

Аяпсиз

Мокдасиз

III person

Singular

Аяпти

Мокда

Plural

Аяпчилар

Мокдалар

Ишмокда

The Present Continuous expresses three ideas;

1) an activity happening now, i.e. at the moment of speech.

Cf.I It is raining. The child is crying. They are looking at you.

2) an activity happening around now, but perhaps not at the moment of speech.

Cf.; I'm reading a very interesting book on astrology these days.

3) a planned future arrangement.

Cf. I'm leaving for London next week,

Past Continuous of the English verb is formed by means of the combination of 'was (were) ~P1 of the notional verb and denotes an action happening (in progress) at a definite time in the past. Definite time may be expressed by means of time expressions or by a. clause of time connected to the principle one with the; conjunctions while and when. In Uzbek in the past continuous the verbs may take the suffixes.

e.g.: I was having a shower when you rang me up (at seven o'clock/.

Compare: I was doing my homework at 7.00 last night. /Past Continuous - I was in the middle of the action.)

b) I did my homework last night. /Past Simple - I started and finished)

Future Continuous is formed by means of the auxiliary 'will (or shall) be - PI f of the notional verb and expresses an action taking place in progress at a definite time after the moment of speech.

Cf.: I shall be waiting for you at the arrival hall at J o'clock (when you plane arrive at the airport).

As is seen from this example Uzbek future continuous is expressed with the help of the suffix '-ётган' and auxiliary verb булл-мок.

Perfect aspect denotes an action that as happened before now. Present Perfect relates past actions and states to the present. In a sense Present Perfect is a present tense. It looks back from the present into tрe past and expresses a completed action up to the present moment,

I've travelled a lot in Africa.

It can also express an action or state which began in the past and continues to the present.

Present Perfect Continuous is used to express a) an activity which continues to the present.

Conclusion

Now let me sum up my qualification work. My qualification work consists of for parts. The tasks and objectives are given in introduction. The idea of my work is given in the main part, where showed the novelty of the work, which contains the comparative analyses of the English language with the Uzbek language. The similarities in gender in the English language and in the Uzbek language are given in the qualification work, compared the tenses which exist in the English language with Uzbek language. The Present Continuous Tense expresses the prolongation of the action.

Example: I am sitting in Uzbek language to express this tense is used only simple tense Мен утираман.

Different examples are given in the work which shows the comparative analyses of both languages.

In conclusion summed up my qualification work, and suggest to use the material in the lyceums and universities.

Bibliography

1. Modern English in Action, Henry I. Christ, DC Heath and company, Boston 2001.

2. Mountains are climbing, study book, Boston 2003y.

3. English phonetic, A.A. Abduazizov издательство «Укитувчи» Т. 1972 г.

4. Reference guide to English, Alice Maclin, USA Washington 1994

5. Improve your sentence, Ann M. Sala, McCraw-Hill, USA. 1999y

6. Language for daily use Mildred A Dawson New York, 2001y

7. New English voyages in English, Francis B. Connors, Loyola University. Press, Chicago 1991y

8. Writing skills, Suzanne Chance, Clencoe, McCraw-Hill. New York

9. Reading and writing, Natasha Haugnes

10. Contemporary English, Mechella Perrott, contemporary publisher group, Illinois USA.

11. Beginning English writing skills, Mone Scherago, National textbook company, Illinois USA.

12. Lectures of comparative typology, C. Satimov, M. Просвещениею 1991 г.

13. Comparative typology V.D. Arakin, M. «Prosveshenie» 1991

14. Comparative grammar, J.I.


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