Parable thinking in W. Faulner's novel "A fable"

“…not that they had no plan when they came here, nor even that the motion which had served in lieu of plan, had been motion only so long as it had had room to move in, but that motion itself had betrayed them by bringing them here at all, not only in the measure of the time it had taken them to cover the kilometer and a half between the city and the compound, but in that of the time it would take them to retrace back to the city and the Place de Ville , which they comprehended now they should never have quitted in the first place, so that, no matter what speed they might make getting back to it, they would be too late” [14, p.131].

Allegory, to function as allegory, as H. R. Warfel has demonstrated, must function on at least three of four possible levels. The story must be a literal story; it must establish parallel relationships between it and the original story upon which it is based (if it is based on a story); it must establish parallel relationships between it and the institution which lies behind the original story; and it must establish a final universal or metaphysical level on which it may be read. I believe that analogical qualities in A Fable which resemble the Passion work primarily on the first and second level, but that it denies much of the third level which is necessary for allegory.

A Fable denies the institution, both in the action that is outside those parts which resemble the Passion directly, and, more importantly, by internal differences between those portions that do parallel the original Gospel stories, owing mainly to its treatment of those portions. In fact, the very parts that seem to offend most of the critics, the character of the Corporal, the “degrading” last supper scene, the barbed wire crown, the ironic resurrection, the final interment in the military monument and certain aspects of “character” of the Corporal, find their ethical and “theological” perspective, not in the codifications of institutionalized Christianity, which in A Fable is equated with “static religion”, but in “dynamic religion” as Bergson describes it. And therefore, A Fable is not a true allegory if one sees the Passion story in the sense that an allegory is supposed to bring us into contact with the ethical and moral teachings of an institution in order to further its teachings. In relation to the Passion one may say that A Fable merely utilizes a profound and meaningful story as background to add force to its own meanings.

3.3 Christian symbolism in A Fable

A Fable has aroused many unfavorable comments and only three searching attempts at an interpretation. None of the commentators saw a totally unified structure and consequently the meaning of the book has not been clarified by them. The title and the decorative symbol of the Cross have led most critics to stray into paths which Faulkner really did not enter. The novel is not a fable in the technical sense of that narrative form; rather it is a story, probably meant by the author to be as meaningful as any of Aesop's writings, but equally probably not to be as simple in outline or depth. One of the chronological frames through which the story progresses is indeed Holy week, but only in a limited degree does the sequence of events relate to the final events in the earthly life of Jesus [21].

A sounder critic, Ursula Brumm, noted that A Fable was constructed around slightly different antitheses. The division between the meek of the earth and the rapacious but creative ones “who participate in the works of civilization” forms the essential conflict in the novel. Miss Brumm cites the long apostrophe to rapacity by the Quartermaster [8] as the focal point of A Fable and maintains that this passage, which is a parody of Paul's message on “charity” in Corinthians 13:8, may be seen as the final indictment of civilization and all its works.

Faulkner, by equating Christianity with Civilization, has written a novel that is absolute heresy in Christian terms. The Corporal is the son of God or the founder of Christianity, but Christ the archetype of man suffering, and of those who expiate the guilt of civilization by renunciation of the power and the privilege.

Another thoughtful early criticism is Philip Blair Rice's review. Rice offers provocative and penetrating insights into the novel which unfortunately lead to the usual cul de sac rather than to a unified vision, because he seeks that vision using the wrong index to meaning. Rice, seeing A Fable as the most monumental task Faulkner had yet assumed, responded to it in like manner. It demands he states “a comparison with such awesomely mentionable names as Melville, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, and Mann”. A Fable does not live up to expectations for Rice, and fails to even render its explicit message, which to him is that message contained in the Nobel Prize acceptance speech. Rice believes, as do most of the critics cited above, that Faulkner's failure is essentially an intellectual failure. He has failed to offer a coherent theology which to Rice is the implicit message of A Fable. Rice's real problem with A Fable is the apparent ambiguity of the “theological” elements. This basic ambiguity is what engenders his criticism of the novel, and he directs his criticism toward theological rather than artistic considerations. For Rice, Faulkner's religious commitment is vague, not orthodox, most likely “a non super naturalistic rendering of the Christian symbolism” which offers “no theodicy and no other-worldly beatitude”. What shocks Rice is that the words of the Nobel Prize acceptance speech “Man will prevail” are uttered by the Marshall instead of the Corporal. To Rice this assignment is a “breathtaking reversal”, since the Marshall must be a figure of evil (Caesar or Satan) according to the reading Rice imposes on the novel. He notes also that the Corporal's entombment in the monument of the Unknown Soldier, although a sort of victory, is too heavily ironic to constitute a real victory for primitive Christianity, since the monument also glorifies nationalism. These and other inconsistencies lead Rice to the conclusion that three thematic resolutions of the implicit message of A Fable lie open to the reader [40].

3.4 The figure of Christ in the novel

The limited vision of critics appears to parallel those who demanded that the Corporal correspond to certain attributes they held to be necessary in portraying a “Christ-figure”. Their preconceptions were focused on characterization while the above named critics demand certain formal structural characteristics to be present (i.e., a fable should be allegorical and symbolic, a novel should be realistic and naturalistic), yet both groups resemble each other in their propensity to proscribe certain practices rather than analyze what these practices might attempt to accomplish in a given work.

One might well wonder, in the light of the conditions the “crucifixion” imposed upon the Runner, just what attitude he could assume in order to “prevail” in a manner pleasing to Mr. Stavrou, since to do other than what Faulkner has done would obviously be to falsify what the experience of history has taught us (i.e., the mutiny did not end the war - in fact the war itself did not end wars, nor have the ideals of Christianity prevailed or the crucifixion itself, even though much of the world is Christian).

One may make point in reference to the use of the Gospel stories. A Fable does not clearly offer an allegorical presentation of the Passion. Allegory does not generally make specific references to the institution behind the action represented, but allows the parallels to make the connection. Were this simply a modern allegory of the Passion, the obvious parallels of action would certainly have been sufficient to draw the resemblance, but Faulkner goes much beyond this. There are many references to the original Christ throughout the novel. The Runner states at one point, in his usual ironic fashion, that the Corporal's job is more difficult than Christ's was.

“His prototype had only man's natural propensity for evil to con tend with: this one faces all the scarlet and brazen impregnability of general staffs” [34, p. 56].

The old porter in admonishing the Runner to go and see the mysterious 13 men who preach pacifism tells him:

“-Just go and look at him.

-Him? - the Runner said. -So it's just one now?

-Wasn't it just one before? - the old porter said” [14, p.67].

The priest, after having warned the Corporal to “beware whom you mock by reading your own mortal's pride into Him” [14, p.363] reflects before his suicide upon the mercy of Christ.

“He was nailed there and he will forgive me” [14, p.370]. Even during the “last supper” scene one of the Corporal's men refers to Christ, “Christ assoil us” [14, p.337], punning on the word, since the prisoners are talking about their becoming manure to enrich the soil of France.

One can hardly be confused as to the Corporal's role within the frame of an allegory. He clearly is not Christ. Whatever symbolic reflections accrue to him by the actions he imitates is something else again. If the novel is read as an account of the Second Coming, the problem arises of explaining other relationships, such as the connection between the Corporal and the Marshall. One might also easily concede that if A Fable is a novel about the Second Coming of Christ, one hardly needs to employ all of the cumbersome machinery of the combined Gospel stories, plus the whole framework of the war. But in A Fable Faulkner has obviously gone out of his way to evoke similar patterns, even to the extent of wrapping a barbed wire crown of thorns around the Corporal's head and other such “excesses” of similarity.

Another point to consider is why the Second Coming, if it is that, should be destined to end so far below the first, especially after its author had made a speech in Stockholm four years earlier which was practically a testament to man. Certainly one must concede to Faulkner that lie was aware of the differences as well as the resemblances between his novel and the Passion story.

If we consider that the resemblance, even a close and obvious resemblance, between a new work and one which has already become established as a key, or even the core structure of an institution (be it a religious or national or whatever institution) - does not of itself demand that the new work under consideration adhere to the ethical, moral, or metaphysical beliefs of the institution which the original focused upon; our critical perspective need not be hamstrung by these considerations. Allegory, to function as allegory must function on at least three of four possible levels. The story must be a literal story; it must establish parallel relationships between it and the original story upon which it is based (if it is based on a story); it must establish parallel relationships between it and the institution which lies behind the original story; and it must establish a final universal or metaphysical level on which it may be read [11].

A Fable denies the institution, both in the action that is outside those parts which resemble the Passion directly, and, more importantly, by internal differences between those portions that do parallel the original Gospel stories, owing mainly to its treatment of those portions. In fact, the very parts that seem to offend most of the critics, the character of the Corporal, the “degrading” last supper scene, the barbed wire crown, the ironic resurrection, the final interment in the military monument and certain aspects of “character” of the Corporal, find their ethical and “theological” perspective, not in the codifications of institutionalized Christianity, which in A Fable is equated with “static religion”, but in “dynamic religion” as Bergson describes it. And therefore, A Fable is not a true allegory if one sees the Passion story in the sense that an allegory is supposed to bring us into contact with the ethical and moral teachings of an institution in order to further its teachings. In relation to the Passion one may say that A Fable merely utilizes a profound and meaningful story as background to add force to its own meanings.

The parallels between certain obvious incidents in A Fable and the Gospels, insofar as the purely imitative qualities go, may be read simply as part of the complex symbolic extension of the static religion of the closed society, much the same as the war is the symbolic extension of the military, and the city of civilized man. The allegorical trappings are simply part of the agglomeration of myth surrounding the institution, and the resemblance of the Corporal to the historical Christ is simply another manifestation of the mythmaking function of the intelligence. This action is obviously “earthed”. But the reduction of much of the agony of Christ to the mute, impassivity of the Corporal, the grotesqueries of the barbed wire crown, the irreverence and scatology in the last s upper scene, the ironic resurrection, point to something beyond a mere retelling of the original story [11, p.67-83].

This impetus is thus carried forward through the medium of certain men, each of whom thereby constitutes a species composed of a single individual. If the individual is fully conscious of this, if the fringe of intuition surrounding his intelligence is capable of expanding sufficiently to envelope its object, that is the mystic life. The dynamic religion which thus springs into being is the very opposite of the static religion born of the myth-making function, in the same way the open society is the opposite of the closed society.

The Corporal can't be supposed to be both a soldier and a pacifist. It's impossible to believe in the palpable reality of the Corporal when everyone is conscious that he is Christ. The Corporal's “palpable reality” is a strange one - he is essentially a mystic. Both Fiedler and Malin, like the other dissenting critics, offer a view which is tempered by their preconceptions of what a “Christ figure” ought to be, and they take umbrage at obvious deviations from the “norm” of presentations. A Christ figure may embody paradoxes, but the contradictions the Corporal presents are seemingly irresolvable ones. Humble, pleasant, meek, and mild, or even robust, he may be, but surly he must not be. The Corporal is obviously more in accord with the last two attributes than he is in accord with the first group - at least this is the way it appears on the surface, but Faulkner has used a rather singular method of presenting the Corporal [11, p.69-80].

The priest, after having warned the Corporal to “Beware whom you mock by reading your own mortal's pride into Him” [14, p.363] reflects before his suicide upon the mercy of Christ.

“He was nailed there and he will forgive me” [14, p.370].

Even during the “last supper” scene one of the Corporal's men refers to Christ, “Christ assoil us” [14, p.337], punning on the word, since the prisoners are talking about their becoming manure to enrich the soil of France.

One can hardly be confused as to the Corporal's role within the frame of an allegory. He clearly is not Christ. Whatever symbolic reflections accrue to him by the actions he imitates is something else again. If the novel is read as an account of the Second Coming, the problem arises of explaining other relationships, such as the connection between the Corporal and the Marshall. One might also easily concede that if A Fable is a novel about the Second Coming of Christ, one hardly needs to employ all of the cumbersome machinery of the combined Gospel stories, plus the whole framework of the war. Novelists who depict modern parallels to the Passion generally avoid following the lockstep pattern of imitation, and Faulkner himself is no exception to this rule in his previous novels. Carvel Collins points with pride to his being the first to discover the use of elements of the Passion in The Sound and the Fury.

A more reasonable explanation of the use of the Gospel stories is that Faulkner used them in relation to certain artistic and philosophical considerations which he must have been well aware of, and that he felt free to use them strictly in accordance with his art rather than subjecting them to strict religious dicta. That the Passion is the most profound story in our immediate culture few would deny; but that all treatments of any part of it must reflect, or at least simply, in that part the whole range of theological or ethical considerations surrounding the Passion is not necessarily valid literary criticism. This idea is what most of those who object to Faulkner's usage ultimately fall back on, although their objections are not stated so baldly as this. The Corporal's “Christianity” offends them because it does not in some way “measure up” to what Christianity means to them. Especially offensive are the ironic scenes and the final interment of the Corporal in the tomb of the Unknown Soldier.

These critics use as their focal point orthodox doctrinal or theological considerations. But Faulkner's focus need not even be on Christianity as such. If we consider that the mere resemblance - even a close and obvious resemblance, between a new work and one which has already become established as a key, or even the core structure of an institution (be it a religious or national or whatever institution) - does not of itself demand that the new work under consideration adhere to the ethical, moral, or metaphysical beliefs of the institution which the original focused upon; our critical perspective need not be hamstrung by these considerations.

If religion is the expression of the myth making function which offers “counterfeit experiences” to allay the impulse of intelligence toward a possibly egotistical path inimical to society, the insistence in A Fable upon the experience of the acts as true human experience more than mythical experience, the delineation of the Corporal as a concrete contrast to the “counterfeit” experiences of the Gospels, stands out as “fact”. In this context, the Corporal's earthbound, “real” qualities, such as his apparent lack of “spirituality” as we expect to see it manifested in human beings, becomes more reasonable and need not vitiate our conception of a unique individual who compels love and action, Bergson, in a rather lengthy state, which relates the two types of religions to the morality which they assert, is specific upon these points, and his explanation may serve to clarify the treatment of the Corporal and A Fable.

PART VI. Methodological reccomendations FOR TEACHING W. FAULKNER'S CREATIVE WRITING

William Faulkner's creative writing is rather known for the readers, it is studied at universities as regards its style, plots and ideas. Faulkner's creative activity is very interesting also because of parable thinking represented in his writings. That's why we think it's important to study Faulkner's creative activities during World literature seminars stressing on parable questions, reading, discussions and debates.

Several novels and short stories written by William Faulkner can be included in high school reading lists and if taught would enhance student experiences of American literature. Malcolm Cowley in his classic introduction to The Portable Faulkner said, “Faulkner's novels have the quality of being lived, absorbed, remembered rather than merely observed. And they have what is rare in the novels of our time, a warmth of family affection, brother for brother and sister, the father for his children - a love so warm and proud that it tries to shut out the rest of the world” [11]. It is difficult to imagine someone reading the final scenes of “A Fable” and not being moved by the fate of the Corporal.

In Faulkner's literature, he has used themes of a depth and magnitude seldom seen in other American writers. His experimentation with style, especially stream of consciousness, places him in a class of his own.

His greatness lies in the development of a body of characters which surely rivals those created by Shakespeare and Dickens. And it is this masterful body of characterization to which high school students should be exposed if they are to truly understand the human spirit as it is embodied in the study of American literature.

In this part we suggest several types of activities. They may be useful for the students to understand the novel better during the seminars.

So, the following activities could be suggested:

1. LEAD-IN activitY

2. vocabulary work

3. Reading comprehension activites

4. discussions

5. debates

1. LEAD-IN activitY

The teacher asks the students a set of questions connected with World War I to prepare them for further observations and discussions. The questions are:

· What do you know about World War I

· When did it start When did it finish

· What countries took part in the First World War

· How did people feel at the front

· How did they feel when they returned

Possible answers:

1. World War I was started by the people in power who wanted to rearrange the spheres of their influence and acquire new sources of money.

2. At the front people usually began to realize the true nature of that event. The idea of their being used as an instrument of conducting a war came to their minds.

3. When people returned form the war they saw that nobody cared either about them or about what they had done at the front.

2. VOCABULARY WORK

The following activities are suggested:

I. Please find these phrases in the sentences in one of the chapters and explain them in your own words:

· to peer across at something

· to be nailed

· to lay aground

· to squat against the wall

· futility of one's martyrdom

· gaudy as a child's toy

· to heap up

· to flick

· gaped faces

· to assoil smb.

· grieving sky

II. Here are some sentences from the text. Please explain what the words in the bold types mean:

1. “You mock by reading your own mortal's pride into Him…”(p.363)

2. “He was nailed there and he will forgive me.” (p.370)

3. “Go on I” the rest of the cortege huddling without order, protocol vanished for the moment too as they hurried after the caisson almost with an air of pell mell, as though in actual flight from the wreckage of the disaster…” (p.436)

4. “It passes the Hotel de Villa where the three generals still stood like a posed camera group stared full at each other across the moment which could not last because of the vehicle's speed - the peasant's face above the corporal's chevrons and the shackled wrists in the speeding lorry, and the grey, inscrutable face above the stars of supreme rank and the bright ribbons of honor and glory on the Hotel steps, looking at each other across the fleeting instant.” (p.17)

5. “His face was showing a comprehension, understanding, utterly free of compassion.” ( p.17)

6. “It had merely arrested itself; not the men engaged in it, but the war itself. War, impervious and even inattentive to the anguish, the torn flesh, the whole petty surge and resurge of victories and defeats…” (pp. 124, 125)

7. “There is an immorality, an outrageous immorality; you are not even contemptuous of glory; you are simply not interested in it.” (p.305)

III. Please translate these sentences into English:

1. Командир дивізії завжди спостерігав за атаками з найближчого спостережного пункту; це було його правилом і сприяло його репутації.

2. У той вівторок опівночі двоє англійських солдат розташувалися на стрілецькій сходинці одного з окопів під руїнами Бетюна.

3. Спали вони на кам'яній підлозі у коридорі; сніданком їх нагодували ще до підйому.

4. Всі розійшлися, він продовжував сидіти, днювальні закінчили прибирання, потім під'їхав автомобіль, але зупинився не біля їдальні, а біля канцелярії, крізь тонку перегородку він почув, як туди увійшли люди, потім голоси…

5. Залишаючи свої домівки, вони майже нічого не знали, всі вони були зірвані з місця тим же жахом…

6. Натовп, здавалося, не міг розгледіти або помітити вантажівки.

7. Вирішувати було вже пізно; щоб не опинитися розтоптаним, він у натовпі пліч-о-пліч з полоненим рухався через площу до будівлі суду…

3. Reading comprehension activitY

Attention check. Please answer the following questions on the text:

· What time is depicted in the novel?

· In what country does the action take place?

· Who is the Corporal?

· What have you learnt about the Marshall?

· Pick out the lines, describing the relations between the Corporal and the Marshall.

· What was Marthe's another name?

· What difference can you see between the Corporal and the Groom

· Describe the funeral scene.

4. discussion

I. The following questions and statements are suggested:

Account of the usage of the religious terms in the novel. Give the examples of it providing your reasons for its usage.

Pick up statements which show the Marshall's attitude towards the Corporal. Give the reasons for your choice.

Why the novel is called “A Fable”?

II. Discuss the following phrases from the novel. What can they mean? Explain in your own words.

1. Fear implies ignorance. (p.17)

2. They had no plan: only motion. (p.130)

3. Beware whom you mock by reading your own mortal's pride into Him… (p.363)

4. He was nailed there and he will forgive me. (p. 370)

5. The small perpetual flame burned above the eternal sleep of the nameless bones brought down five years ago from the Verdun battlefield. (p.434)

5. debates

The sudents are divided into two or three groups, each of which is given a subject for debate: two of these groups are direct opposite of each other, and a third - should give a compromise. Some examples are as follows:

a) If you want to make a good thing you can use every stick in the book.

Good thing can be done only by good deeds.

b) If a person has faith in something, he will definitely make his dream come true.

The sound mind is more important than the faith.

c) Sometimes thinking that we are doing good, we ruin everything.

Sometimes it is necessary to ruin something, in order to build something new.

Each group has to work out and write down all possible arguments in favour of its subject, including defenses against the points that might be brought up by the opposition. It also has to work out the presentation of the material.

A time limits should be set for preparations - from 10 to 15 minutes. Formalities of the procedure are outlined by the teacher before the debate begins. The points to be included are the following:

· what the speaker does;

· how participants show what they want to say;

· how long their speeches are, etc.

Then the full debate follows. The final voting is ”genuine”. The announcement of the results of the vote is the end of the activity.

Teachers who teach Faulkner and who are contemplating teaching his fiction advise us such teaching guides as “A Reader's Guide to William Faulkner” (1964), “Reading Faulkner's Best Short Stories” (1999), “The Cambridge Companion to William Faulkner” (1995), “Approaches to Teaching Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury” (1996), “A William Faulkner Encyclopedia” (1999), and “Teaching Faulkner” (2001) [11].

The methods of teaching literature in today's high school and the issues which are at the center of that teaching have changed since the death of Faulkner in 1962. Teachers are examining new and exciting ways to engage students in the study of a complicated writer such as Faulkner. These guides are written in a clear, accessible, and scholarly style by some of the most important critics of Faulkner today. They enable teachers to better understand the complexities of Faulkner's writing style, his realistic subject matter, and his perception of the decline of the Old South and the rise of the New.

CONCLUSION

The research conducted leads us to the following conclusions:

1. There is a close connection between the life and creative activities of William Faulkner. Throughout his entire life the famous American writer devoted a great deal of time to literature. Moreover, writing became Faulkner's greatest passion, beside which nothing else mattered. Almost all the events of his life were reflected in his writings. There are some defined moments which influenced him deeply and were reflected in his works. When a young man Faulkner demonstrated artistic talent, writing poetry. His earliest literary efforts were romantic, conscientiously modeled on English poets such as Burns, Thomson, Housman, and Swinburne, his first daughter's death, the Nobel Prize etc.

2. During our research we singled out the main features of parables:

ь The parable allows deep communication between the narrator and the reader. It begins “benignly”, disarming readers, drawing them in, and encouraging them to compare the story to their own experiences. The readers identify with a certain character and encounter dilemmas that call for choices. At this point the readers move more deeply into self examination.

ь The parable involves indirect communication that provokes self discovery. Whereas direct communication creates observers and listeners, indirect communication creates participants and action.

ь Experiences with indirect communication cultivate the capability for developing the self. Rather than a change in information there is a change in consciousness.

ь The situations described in the parable can be applied in real life.

ь An action has a parable character only when it is said in it: act like this.

The research proved the existence of the parable thinking in Faulkner's novel A Fable:

· The absence of the story-teller, Faulkner's narrative and ethical position, his point of view concerning all the events which occur in the novel. Faulkner only represents the events and the feelings of the heroes without giving any comments from his side, so the reader has to build the conclusions, associative comparisons and guesses himself independently.

· A Fable is a fable without a strict moral - it is more descriptive than prescriptive. It is essentially a description of two opposing sets of moralities shown in their complex interactions both ideally and historically.

· The main hero of the novel the Corporal is put in a scale, valid situation of an ethical choice which has basic, major importance. This situation is also one of organic laws of a parable.

· All the events in the novel occur in the limited place of the imaginary reality which serves as a laboratory platform on which the plot of the novel develops.

· All the events in the novel are shown through a prism of perception of the world by the main hero. So everything which doesn't enter in his field of view and consciousness is entirely absent in the novel.

· The source of the novel is the story about Christ. The plot of the novel revolves around a reincarnation of Christ during the First World War.

· In the novel there constantly can be seen a difficult struggle between an angel and a devil, light and darkness, beauty and ugliness, good and bad, passion and indifference, cleanliness and sinfulness of a person.

Thus, we considered Faulkner's life and its connection with his creative activities, highlighted the main features of parable, its peculiarities and the differences between parable and novel, singled out the parable thinking in “A Fable”.

Our research contributed to more profound understanding of the novel that firstly was even rejected as art. It's impossible not to see vast scope, its wide compass in the process of their analysis. And in spite of this disregard the novel became an integral part of the World literature of the XX century.

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