Criminal law

The term PC is sometimes used in a pejorative or ironic sense to satirise either the idea that carefully chosen language can encourage, promote, or establish certain social outcomes and relationships, or the belief that the resulting changes benefit society. This satire often comments on certain forms of identity politics, including gay rights, feminism, multiculturalism and the disability rights movement. For example, the use of "gender-neutral" job titles ("lineworker" instead of "lineman," "chairperson" or "chair" instead of "chairman," etc.), the use of the expression "differently abled" rather than "disabled are all sometimes referred to as "politically correct". 'PC terms are also applied to objects, such as "maintenance cover" instead of "manhole cover".

PC originated in American universities as a definition of a sensible movement aimed at eliminating racism, sexism and other prejudices in language. In the eighties there was an increasing awareness in the U.S. that language should be used with care to avoid the notions of inequality. A lot of new terms appeared, e.g. Native Americans (instead of "Indians"), Afro Americans (instead of Black people) etc. but in its extreme form PC had led to the boycotting of certain teaches, the removal from a Us college of a Goya nude thought to represent sexual harassment and the renaming of flowers such as pansies because of possible offence to gay men. Thus, PC has come to seen by many as over-sensitive and the worst puritanical and repressive and it has been widely used in the nineties almost always ironically and pejoratively and is often ridiculed.

Here are some topics which English people often use euphemisms for:

Birth the happy event

Crime fall the back of a lorry

Toilets go to wash one's hands

Strikes day of action

Lying to be economical with the truth

Some expressions, introduced for PC reasons, have become part of standard English now. For example, a single parent is used instead of unmarried woman, сchildren with special needs rather than educationally subnormal children, a homemaker - housewife, a refuse collector - dustman (мусорщик), hearing-impaired- deaf (глухой).

Balancing Work and Leisure

How many of you feel that you really should be working harder? At the same time, how many of you wish you had more time to have fun and enjoy yourself? How do you solve this paradox?

Solving this problem can be difficult. Sometimes really motivating goals and a tight schedule can leave us feeling burnt out and drained. On the other hand, spending most of your time on leisure and fun activities often means you don't end up getting anything done. It would be nice to live in a world where we only need to do what we want to do, but that isn't realistic.

The key is to have balance. If you start to burn out or feel drained, you know that you need to find a way to increase the amount of leisure time you have. If you aren't getting anywhere with your goals or projects, you know you need to take steps to become more productive when you are working.

There are really three parts to balancing work and leisure.

The first is simply to increase the quality of your activities. By working more productively, and spending your leisure time on truly relaxing or enjoyable activities, it is easier to find the time to do both satisfactorily.

The second part is to monitor and take control of your energy levels. When you begin to feel drained by a difficult problem at work, take breaks that will really help you take control of your energy levels. Taking proper physical care of your body through diet and exercise is the next step. With more energy, it is easier to increase the quality of our activities.

The third part is to ensure that one area of our life doesn't cannibalize the others. Because there is often a great deal of need and urgency attached to work, it is easy for it to eat away at the leisure time we need to function. In these cases it is often best to guarantee ourselves a certain amount of leisure time in advance.

Achieving the balance between work and leisure can be difficult. Understanding that it is not only nice to achieve balance, but absolutely necessary for both our productivity and enjoyment is the first step. Hopefully you can now find your own balance between work and leisure.

The National Health Service in Great Britain. Structure and Organization

2The National Health (NHS) was established throughout the United Kingdom on 5 July, 1948.

Similar services operate in England and Wales, in Scotland and Northern Ireland, but with- administrative difference.

The NHS provides 1free treatment for people ordinarily resident in Britain and gives emergency treatment for visitors.

Examinations by general practitioners, dentists and ophthalmic practitioners are without charge to the patient and maintenance and treatment in hospitals are also free.

But there are 3charges for certain items, for example, for a course of dental treatment for an adult, for dentures and spectacles and for prescriptions.

However, the NHS has suffered from shortages and financial deprivation ever since its inception in 1948. But the aim of the policy of the Conservative is to simplify administration of the NHS and to increase 16the pay for medical treatment. Besides some resent Government reports showed that average waiting times for hospital admission in the country as a whole meant that more patients had to face a delay of several months. In the Sheffield region, for example, patients with diseases of the digestive system averaged a 19 week wait. In the South Western region patients were waiting 41 weeks for varicose vein treatment. Since 1974 every prescription cost 20 pence, now it costs F 150. Exceptions are made only for several categories of patients, including children, expectant and nursing mothers, the elderly and those in financial need.

The greater part of the cost of the health service is met from general taxation (85%), and the rest from contributions paid as part of the national insurance contributions and heal charges for some items.

Of Britain's population of 56 million it has been estimated that about 93% use the NHS. The NHS is the largest employer in the UК, employing more than 900 000 people. Yet, the capitalist structure of the British society ensures that in health, as in every other field the wealthy cream of the privileges at the expense of the general public The inadequacies of the NHS, is the main reason for the phenomenal growth in members of patients treated under private medical schemes.

The NHS consists of 3 main parts: 10the general practitioner (including dental, pharmaceutical and ophthalmic services), the hospitals and specialist services, and a local health authority services (comprising a range of home and clinical services for 5prevention, 6treatment and 7care). The advantages and disadvantages of traveling; by plane, train, and car.

When traveling over land there are three main ways of doing so, a flight, a train ride, or driving yourself. I guess you could walk or run but, I'm talking about cross country travel. There are expensive and inexpensive ways of travel, some fast, some slow, most fun, others boring. Out of these three ways you must decide how you want to go baste on your budget, time, and the quality of travel you prefer.

The fastest way of travel would be by plane. If time is a major issue, a flight would be the best mode of transportation for you. A flight can also be easier to schedule, there are hundreds of flights leaving every half-hour, in every direction from and to almost every airport in the world. Besides being fast and convenient, studies have shown it's also safer. Statistics show air travel as one of the safest ways to travel, baste on its passenger to crash ratio. The down fall is a flight is also the most expensive way to travel out of the three. On most commercial planes there are three sections of seating, where you sit depends on your willingness to pay.

Another way to travel is by train. On a cross country trip you would have sleeping quarters; which would have a bed and bathrooms for yourself. During the ride you could stay in your room or roam around to the different cars; which have various uses. Traveling by train can be very relaxing you can sit by a window while having a meal or snack and enjoy the view of the countryside, or engage in conversation with another passenger at the bar while having a drink. The only thing is time; it would take a couple of days to go cross country by train. Another thing is you can only stop where the train is schedule to. The good thing is that you can sleep, eat, take a shower, kick back and relax as the conductor controls the train. You don't have to worry about the controls; it's not like your driving.

Driving yourself cross country is a mode of transportation which a lot of people have started doing more of. A major down fall is the time it takes to get from point A to point B, it take so long and is so uncomfortable most people would rather pay extra for a plane or a train ticket. But if you are travelling by car you can control where you go, sleep, when and where you eat, and for how long you would do these things. You're not on anyone's schedule; you can change your destination in the middle of your trip if you wanted to. In a car you have these same freedoms, except to sleep, you would have to stop somewhere to sleep. You could sleep in the car but, it would most likely be very uncomfortable. When driving a distance of this nature you want to get plenty of rest. Having made trips like this, and trying to drive straight though, after a day or two with no sleep you start to see thing that aren't there. This is how a lot of accidents happen. Driving long distances isn't for everyone, it takes some who can enjoy there own company, and who wont go crazy when it seems they are on an endless road.

In all, I would have to say I would rather spend a little extra and travel by plane. I like the fact it's going to get me to my destination faster than other ways of traveling. It will also be relaxing in the upper two classes of seating. I think my main purpose for choosing a flight is time. I'm always in a rush, I don't know why, I just am.

Hospital and Specialist Services

The hospital services include district general hospitals with treatment and diagnostic facilities for in-patients, day-patienls and out-patients, hospital maternity departments, 9infections disease units, psychiatric and geriatric facilities, and 13rehabilitation facilities, convalescent homes and all forms of specialized treatment.

A large proportion of the hospitals in the NHS were built in the XIX century, some trace their origin to much earlier charitable foundations, such as the famous St.Bartholomew's and St.Thomas' hospital in London. Much has been done to improve and extend existing buildings and many new hospitals have been or are being opened. Government has reviewed the policy which involves the construction of excessively large hospitals and the risk of hospital services becoming too remote from the local communities.

Hospital treatment is free for outpatients and inpatients. A NHS patient may receive good treatment and in all probability, he will share a general ward with many other patients, possibly as many as 30. There are also a number of pay-beds in which part-time specialists, taking part in the service, treat privately patients who had decided not to take advantage of the scheme. Such patients are charged for full hospital maintenance as well as for the specialist's fee.

Well-to-do people may still prefer to go to their doctor as private patients and in most large towns there are some private and financially independent hospitals known as nursing homes which are outside the NHS. The ratio of patient to doctor is very small in these hospitals and here the patient may choose which specialist or surgeon he will be treated by. The fees are usually very high indeed and only the rich can afford them.

Private medical practice has increased by leaps and bounds in recent years. This is the verdict of a report commissioned by the Department of Health and Social Security published last month. If in 1955 some half a million persons were covered by private treatment schemes, now roughly 33/4 per cent of the total UK population resorts to private treatment.

Leisure Time

One works hard only to have some leisure because “man does not live by bread alone.” So leisure may be called the spare time, free from labour and drudgery of life.

Work and leisure are interrelated. They are like the two sides of the same coin. The observation that “we must beat the iron when it is hot, but we may polish it at leisure”, best explains the proper relation between work and leisure. Leisure is like a margin on a printed or written page. In the absence of work no leisure can be actually conceived. Leisure never means idleness. Leisure cannot be thought of as a non-activity. It should be seen in a broader perspective, as a fulfilling part of life and work. As J.B. Priestley has said, “Any fool can be fussy and rid himself of energy all over the place, but a man has to have something in him before he can settle down to do nothing. He must have reserves to draw upon, must be able to plunge into the strange, slow river of dreams and reverie, and must be at heart a poet.” Only a very few have these reserves to draw upon. Moreover, dreaming, thinking and- even meditation are .activities, though of different kind.

One works hard only to have some leisure because “man does not live by bread alone.” So leisure may be called the spare time, free from labour and drudgery of life. It is a kind of diversion. The dictionary definition of leisure is, “the state of having time at one's disposal; time which one can spend as one pleases; free or unoccupied time”. A famous French scholar and sociologist has defined leisure as “an activity apart from the obligations of work, family and society, to which the individual turns at will, for either relaxation, diversion or broadening of knowledge and his spontaneous social participation, the free expression of his creative capacity.” Leisure is a kind of breathing space or a welcome and desirable pause in the long hours of work and labour. A labour is sweet and honorable when it is earned with the sweat of the brow.

The rapid and radical scientific and technological advancements have made life easy and convenient. Our life is now far more free and leisurely than it was for our forefathers. Affluence and ease have brought more leisure hours. We are relieved of much of drudgery now and have more spare hours to relieve us of fatigue. The housewife too, now has more free time as there are many labour-saving devices at her disposal. Consequently, all of us can now enjoy long hours of rest, relaxation, joy, diversion and entertainment. All work and no play would certainly make Jack a dull boy. Leisure is a kind of insurance against dullness, fatigue, boredom, tension and cares of life. After hours of work and struggle, we need some rest, relaxation, joy, respite, freshness and a kind of brief holiday.

Leisure helps us in keeping our body and mind toned up, healthy and refreshed. Some time devoted to regular diversions, or hobbies, is bound to strengthen and refresh us in more than one way for better achievements in our respective fields of life. The five-day a week work culture gives us a lot of spare time to spend in recreation, rest, hobbies, simple and innocent joys of life and intellectual and artistic activities.

But for many, leisure may be a problem as they may not know how to use and enjoy their spare time. For them leisure may be more boring and monotonous than the daily routine occupation. Leisure is like a double-edged sword which can be either used well or misused. A person can be best judged by the way he or she uses the leisure hours. It never means frittering away the precious time in drinking, gambling or idle gossiping. It should be viewed as a golden opportunity and used I for healthy enjoyment, intellectual, spiritual, cultural and artistic pursuits. One may spend this time in playing with children, J listening to their stories or in observing nature and birds.

An idle mind is the devil's workshop. The right use of leisure hours can help us in shaping and developing our personality in the desired way. It is really condemnable to spend leisure without a definite plan to have purposeful gains. Leisure provides us a rare opportunity to satisfy our inner demands, j By means of our regular occupations and professions; we satisfy our physical and material demands. Now, during leisure we can very well satisfy our artistic, cultural, aesthetic, intellectual and spiritual urges. We can devote our spare hours to reading, writing, playing a musical instrument or in the pursuit of some meaningful creative and socially relevant activity. There are many hobbies to choose from. We may select from these according to our aptitude and resources, etc.

Once we have made a judicious selection, we can make our leisure really interesting, meaningful and worthwhile. All cultural and aesthetical achievements and improvements arise from leisure. It helps people in becoming whole, integrated and cultured. During these precious moments of respite, relaxation, rest and diversion, one can stand and stare at things beautiful, j ponder on the meaning of life and turn one's life into a real asset.

Different people spend leisure differently. Some may occupy themselves in gardening, photography, reading or playing outdoor or indoor games. Others may busy themselves in playing with children or in enjoying music.

In modern times, viewing television is becoming more and more popular. In western countries people spend roughly 45% of their leisure hours in front of their T.V. sets. In India also more and more people spend their time before their T.V. sets, viewing films, popular serials or other programmes. Women and children too are enthusiastic viewers of television programmes in India. But watching T.V. for long hours has its inherent risks as it is a passive entertainment and there is no participation by the viewers in it.

Short work weeks and automation of activities have resulted in more leisure and spare time. And with this, the danger of mental dissipation, flirtation and killing of time in idle entertainment have increased. Success and purposefulness of leisure is as important as that of our employment or vocational pursuits. Leisure can be a means of both our elevation, enrichment, improvement of sensibilities and degradation, fall, moral dissipation and flirtation. Leisure in itself is neither good nor bad. It is its use that makes it good or bad. No doubt all intellectual improvement arises from leisure but too much and too frequent leisure makes a poet cry:

Leisure is pain; takes off our chariot wheels, how heavily we drag the load of life Blest leisure is our curse; like that of Cain, It makes us wander, wander earth around To fly that tyrant thought.

Therefore, leisure with purpose and meaningfulness should be our aim for has not Cicero, the famous Roman statesman said, “The thing which is the most outstanding and chiefly to be desired by all healthy and good and well-off persons is leisure with honour.” If we stick to the principle of “leisure with honour” then it would be no problem at all. We must be alert and watchful against the abuse of leisure.

ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION

Concentrate on the problem of environment protection nowadays. What forms of pollution do you know? Characterize them in brief.

Environmental pollution is a term that refers to all the ways by which people pollute their surroundings. People dirty the air with gases and smoke, poison the water with chemicals and other substances, and damage the soil with too many fertilizers and pesticides. We pollute also in such ways as ruin natural beauty by scattering junk and litter on the land and in the water. We operate machines and motor vehicles that fill the air with disturbing noise. Nearly everyone causes environmental pollution in some way.

Air pollution is caused by exhausting from automobiles; factories' discharge much of the toxic gases. So, high concentration of carbon dioxide in the air destroys the ozone layer. By the all badly polluted air can cause illness, and even death.

Water pollution is caused by dumping waste materials and the by-products of industrialization, by oil spillage from the tankers and ships. Polluted water kills fish and other marine life.

Pollution of soil reduces the amount of land that is available for growing food. Land pollution is provoked by using too much fertilizer and pesticides, which ruin the soil, dumping wastes on the land which can't decompose.

It should be mentioned that much pollution is caused by things that benefit people. For example automobiles provide transportation for millions for people, but exhaust the air. Factories pollute air , water and land by by-products and toxic gases but factories provide job and produce goods that people want. It's a kind of paradox. Scientists and engineers work to find ways to lessen the amount pollution.

Wastes unite all forms of pollution. Still exist such types of wastes: industry, commerce, quarrying, construction, household bins and litter. Most domestic rubbish ends up in landfill sites which are ecologically unsound. Around two-third of landfill waste is organic, biodegradable matter. As it decomposes it produces methane - a powerful greenhouse gas.

People throw paper, garden rubbish, food, packaging, plastic bottles and trays, bags, glass and electronic goods. Much food end s up in the bin though it could be eaten by people animals, or turned into compost. Farmers and costumers end up vegetables and fruits discarding perfectly edible but blemished produce. Housewives having in their disposal huge supermarkets and more disposable income become profligate and buy more than they can carry and use. Packaging, bags, plastic bottle and trays can't be recycled by soil, they just pollute it. For nowadays people it is very hard to carry such waste into the bin. Plastic wastes can be recycled or being compressed into pellets and burnt instead of gas or coil using it as a renewable alternative to the fossil fuels. But many environmentalists say that, while a waste paper can be a useful alternative to fossil fuel, it is not safe to burn plastic, glass or metal as it can produces greenhouse gases and toxic reduces which can impact on human's health. So calling e-wastes can't be recycled. Whereas in the past we expected to keep electronic goods for years, calling up the repair man when they went wrong, they are now so cheap that we are happy to throw them out. In fact we have a little choice, because many goods are no longer designed to be repaired. E-wastes hard to recycle as they contain lead, lithium, nickel and cadmium which are extremely hard to extract and treat.

People have always polluted their surroundings. But throughout much of history, pollution was not a major problem. Most people lived in uncrowded rural areas and the pollutants (waste products) they produced were widely scattered. People had no pollution-causing machines or motor vehicles. The development of crowded industrial cities in the 1700's and 1800's made pollution a major problem. People and factories in these cities put huge amounts of pollutants into small areas. During the 1900s, urban areas continued to develop, and automobiles and other new inventions made pollution steadily worse. By the mid-1900s, pollution had affected the water in every major lake and river and the air over every major city in the United States and other industrial countries. Since the late 1960s, millions of people have become alarmed by the dangers of pollution, and scientific studies have improved our understanding of the problem. Large numbers of people are now working to reduce environmental pollution.

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