Multiple Intelligences in the structure of a new English syllabus for secondary school

Contents

Introduction

Chapter 1. Multiple Intelligences in the structure of a new English syllabus for secondary school

1.1 Methodology as a science

1.1.1 Present-day issues of foreign language teaching at secondary school

1.1.2 Current concepts in secondary school graduates EFL

Chapter 2. Theory of multiple intelligences

2.1 Gardner's theory

2.1.1 Linguistic Intelligence

2.1.2 Logical/Mathematical Intelligene

2.1.3 Intrapersonal Intelligence

2.1.4 Interpersonal Intelligence

2.1.5 Musical Intelligence

2.1.6 Spatial Intelligence

2.1.7 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

2.1.8 Naturalistic Intelligence

2.2. Psychological analysis of Gardner's Theory

Chapter 3. Learning environment in teaching English conversation

3.1 Multiple intelligences in teaching English learners to the senior

forms of secondary school

3.1.1 Development of students' speaking and pronunciation skills

3.1.2 Use of the World Wide Web in teaching English to secondary school graduates

3.1.3 Use of the VIDEO in teaching English to secondary school graduates

Conclusions

Bibliography

Supplement

Introduction

The theme of the present university degree thesis is “ Multiple

Intelligences as Strategy for teaching EFL to High School Graduates “.

The topicalityof the research is stipulated by rapid changes in education

and intercultural communication etc., caused by the development of

computer technologies.

The aim of the university degree thesis is include the Multiple Intelligences as Strategy for TEFL to High school students .

Methods of the research:

-inductive,

-deductive,

-experience of noted scholars,

-research of literature.

The theoretical value of the paper consists in using the results of the research in the EFL teaching.

The practical value - a good opportunity of using at the lessons of English on secondary school. It helps to achieve the best results in teaching English.

The structure of the paper:

The paper consists: The Introduction, Chapter 1, where I have considered “Methodology as a science” , Chapter 2, “The Theory of Multiple Intelligences”,

And Chapter 3 “Learning environment in teaching English conversation”, in the end of the paper I've done the conclusions of the research , and used the certain literature.

Principles of Multiple Intelligence Theory

The following principles are a condensation of J. Keith Rogers and based upon his study of Howard Gardner's theory:

-Intelligence is not singular: intelligences are multiple.

-Every person is a unique blend of dynamic intelligences.

-Intelligences vary in development, both within and among individuals.

-All intelligences are dynamic.

-Multiple intelligences can be identified and described.

-Every person deserve opportunities to recognize and develop the

multiplicity of intelligences.

-The use of one of the intelligences can be used to enhance another intelligence.

-Personal background density and dispersion are critical to knowledge, beliefs, and skills in all intelligences.

-All intelligences provide alternate resources and potential capacities to become more human, regardless of age or circumstance.

-A pure intelligence is rarely seen.

-Developmental theory applies to the theory of multiple intelligences.

-Any list of intelligences is subject to change as we learn more about multiple intelligences.

According to Howard Gardner, as presented in his book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, human intelligence has the following criteria:

-Potential Isolation by Brain Damage.

-The Existence of Idiot [Autistic] Savants, Prodigies, and other Exceptional Individuals.

-An Identifiable Core Operation or Set of Operations.

-A Distinctive Developmental History, along with a Definable Set of Expert "End-State" Performances.

-An Evolutionary History and Evolutionary Plausibility.

-Support from Experimental Psychological Tasks.

-Support from Psychometric Findings.

-Susceptibility to Encoding in a Symbol System.

Chapter 1. Multiple Intelligences in the structure of a new syllabus for secondary school

Comparing old and the new English teaching syllabi for secondary

schools one can clearly see some differences.

Let's begin with the introductory word. The introductory word of the old

syllabus covers only the explanation of practical and educational

purposes of English learning and end-goals of learning language

(listening, speaking, reading and writing). The introductory part of the

new syllabus includes:

1. Introduction.

2.Levels of speech competence.

3.The principles of the programme.

4. Educational purposes.

5. Grounds of content.

6. Methodological foundation (basis) of modern teaching and learning

English.

7. Control and essessment.

Criteria of essessment of pupils' achievements (4 levels: elementary,

middle,sufficient, high) have a special place in the new syllabus. Such

information is not included into the old syllabus.

According to the new sullabus teaching English starts from the

second form.

Analyzing the topics of conversation we can see that the old syllabus

gives us three main topics from the fifth to the eleventh form: A Pupil and

His Environment; Ukraine; English-Speaking Countries. The new

syllabus provides with 6 topics already in the second form: About

myself, My Family and Friends, School Life, Recreation, Nature, Man,

The Life of Society and 8 topics from the third to the 11th form.

Analysing communicative unit we find there speech functions and

examples of functional exponents in the new syllabus, which are

not mentioned in the old syllabus.

Language competence includes vocabulary, grammar and phonetics in

both syllabi, but in the old syllabus the number of lexical units in each

form is fixed.

Sociocultural and sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence

are not defined in the old syllabus.

At the end of each year specific demands to speech competence of pupils

(listening, monologue, dialogue, reading, writing) are defined in the new

syllabus.

In general, the new syllabus is much but specific wider.

1.1. Methodology as a science

The term “методика” has several correspondences in English: methodology, methods and methodics. The word methodology will be used for “методика” and “методологія” of teaching English as foreign language [TEFL].

There are several definitions of this term:

Methodology (from Greek methodos - спосіб, шлях дослідження або пізнання, logos - поняття, вчення) is a framework of organization of teaching which relates linguistic theory to pedagogical principles and techniques.[37,p.5]

Methodology is a branch of pedagogy which dealing with peculiarities of teaching a certain subject.[38,p.12]

Methodology of FLT is a body of scientifically tested theory concerning the teaching of foreign languages in school and other education institutions.[37,p.17]

Methodology is a system of principles and ways of organization and construction of theoretical and practical activity as well as teaching about this system .[37,p.14]

Methodology is a science which studies aims, contents, means, principles, techniques and methods of a system of instruction and education.[37,p.15]

Methodology is a branch of didactics which relates a linguistic theory to pedagogical principles and techniques.

The scholars've considered the relation of methodology of FLT to other sciences ( supplement 1).

The objective of the present research is integrating some aspects of knowledge of English, didactics, psychology, linguistics to formulate basic professional and pedagogical habits and skills. In G. Rogova's opinion, methodology covers three main points:

aims of TEFL;

content of TEFL;

methods ( supplement 2), principles and techniques of TEFL.

But it becomes evident that the three components do not constitute the whole teaching/learning process. The activities of learners and teachers, their interaction (symmetrical or assymetrical) and the role of instruction materials are the outstanding constituents. The task of methodology is to integrate the relationships among them and to draft requirements for each of them.

Teaching a subject is viewed here not simply as the delivery of prescribed formulate, imparting a certain amount of knowledge, but also developing habits and skills, but also as activity.

To attain these aims in the most effective way constitutes the main subject of any methodology. The methodology determines the laws, principles, aims, content, methods, techniques and means (media) of teaching. The actual teaching of a language may differ in the analysis of what is to taught, in the planning of lessons, in the teaching techniques used, in the type and amount of teaching done thought mechanical means and finally, in the testing of what has been learned.

Basic Categories Of Methodology

The methodology of TEFL seems to embody such basic categories on which there is general agreement among those who have studied the subject: methods, principles, techniques, aims and means of instruction.

There is no unanimity regarding the term method either. In G. Rogova's et. al. view “method is a technological operation, structural and functional component of the teacher's and learner's activity, realized in techniques and principles of instruction. A method is a model of instruction based on definite theoretical provision, principle, techniques and aims of instruction.

A method is also a specific set of teaching techniques and materials generally backed by stated principles.

A method determines what and how much taught (selection), the order in which it is taught (gradation), and how the meaning and form are conveyed (presentation). Since presentation, drill and repetition may also be the concern of the teacher, the analysis of the teaching/leaning process must first determine how much is done by the method and how much by the teacher.

Aim is a direction or guidance to establish a course or procedure to be followed. The teacher should formulate long-term goals, interim aims and short-term objectives. What changes he can bring about in his pupils at the end of the week, month, year, course, and each particular lesson. Hence, aims are planned results for pupils learning a FL. The aims are stipulated by syllabus and other official directives. They are: practical, instructional, educational and developing (formative).

Practical aims cover habits and skills which pupils acquire in using a foreign language. A habit is an automatic response to specific situation, acquired normally as a result of repetition and learning.

A skill is a combination of useful habits serving a definite purpose and requiring application of certain knowledge.

Instructional aims developed the pupils mental capacities and intelligence in the process of FLL (foreign language learning).

Educational aims help the pupils extend their knowledge of the world in which they live.

Formative or developing aims help develop in learns sensual perception, motor, kinesthetic, emotional and motivating spheres.

Principles are basic underlying theoretical provisions which determine the choice of methods, techniques and others means of instruction.

Technique in the methodology of TEFL is the manner of presentation, demonstration, consolidation and repetition.

Means is something by the use or help of which a desired goal is attained or made more likely.

1.1.1. Present-day issues of TEFL

A critical review of methods currently employed in TEFL/TESL has shown no consensus on the effective way to facilitate and accelerate English learning. A shift has been made from teacher-centered activity to student-centered, some methodologists even claim that learning is more important than teaching (Michael West, Humanistic Approach, Silent Way).

Though many young teachers still teach the way they had been taught, it can't be denied that current thinking in methodology constitutes a challenge to convention thinking about language teaching.

One of the conventional methods of TEFL is the Grammar-Translation method
(G-TM):

The goal of foreign language (FL) study, using this method, is to learn a language in order to read its literature or to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from FL study. G-TM is a way of studying language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of the knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language. The first language is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the second language.

Reading and writing are the major focus: little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or listening.

In a typical G-T text, the grammar rules are presented and illustrated, a list of vocabulary items is presented with their translation equivalents, and translation exercise a prescribed.

the sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language, and it is this focus on the sentence that is a distinctive feature of the method.

of grammar rules, which are then practised through translation Accuracy is emphasized. Students are expected to attain high standarts in translation, because of “the high priority attached to meticulous standards of accuracy which was a prerequisite for passing the increasing number of formal written examinations that grew up during the century"

Grammar is taught deductively, that is, by presentation and study exercises.

The student's native language is the medium of instruction. It is used to explain new items and to enable comparisons to be made between the FL and the student's mother tongue. (G-TM dominated in FLT from the 1840s to the 1940s, and in modified form it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today).

In the mid- and late nineteenth centuries opposition to G- TM gradually developed in several European countries. This Reform Movement, as it was referred to, laid the foundations for the development of a new way of language teaching and raised controversies that have continued to the present day.

From the 1880s, however, practically minded linguists like Henry Sweet in England, Wilhelm Victor in Germany and Paul Passy in France began to promote their intellectual leadership needed to give reformist ideas greater credibility and acceptance.

The main principles of their theory were:

the study of the spoken language;

phonetic training;

an inductive approach to the teaching of grammar;

teaching new meanings through establishing associations within the target language rather than by establishing associations with the mother tongue;

translation should be avoided, although the mother tongue could be used in order to explain new words or to check comprehension.

The idea put forward by members of the Reform Movement had a role to play in developing principles of FLT out of naturalistic approach to language learning. This led to what has been termed 'natural method' and ultimately led to the development of what came to be known as the Direct Method.

In the 1920s and 1930s H.E.Palmer, A.S.Hornby and other British linguists developed an approach to methodology that involved systematic principles of selection (the procedures by which lexical and grammatical content was chosen), gradation (principles by which the organization and sequencing of content were determined), and presentation (techniques used for presentation and practice of items in a course). Their general principles were referred to as the oral approach to language teaching. The characteristic feature of the approach was that new language points were introduced and practised situationally.

Later the terms Structural Situational Approach and Situational Language Teaching came into common usage.

Like the Direct Method, Situational Language Teaching (SLT) adopts an inductive approach to the teaching of grammar. The meaning of words or structures is not to be given through translation in either the native tongue or the target language but is to be induced from the way the form is used in the situation. H.Palmer believed that "if we give the meaning of a new word, either by translation into the home language or by an equivalent in the same language, as soon as we introduced it, we weaken the impression which the word makes on the mind".

Explanation is therefore discouraged, and the learner is expected to deduce the meaning of a particular structure or vocabulary item from the situation in which it is presented.

In 1939 the university of Michigan developed the first English Language Institute in the United States. It specialized in the training of teachers of English as a foreign language and in teaching English as a second or foreign language.

The approach to FLT became known as the Audio-Lingual Method. According to this method FL was taught by systematic attention to pronunciation and by intensive oral drilling of its basic sentence patterns.

The language teaching theoreticians and methodologists who developed Audio-lingualism (Charles Fries, William Moulton) believed that the use of the student's native language should be forbidden at early levels .

Translation as a teaching device may be used where students need or benefit from it. It was one of the principles of Communicative Language Teaching the origins of which are to be found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960's.

Looking back from the vantage point of 1990's we can see that the Direct Method, Audio-Lingual and Communicative Methods have their rationale and supporters, yet they are not equally efficient for all learners, and for all teachers, and for all situations.

The methodology must be flexible and electric, based on a careful selection of facets of various methods and their integration into a cohesive, coherent procedure. Of central importance are positive attitudes of learners and teachers; they should permeate all stages of teaching/learning process, make every learning hour a stimulating, motivating experience leading to pleasure and success in language acquisition.

The teacher's pivotal responsibility is to imbue students with confidence and self-esteem, emotional security and a well-integrated personality that will make them life-long learners.

The emerging “paradigm shift” in teaching strategies needs new generalizations which will lead to improved attitudes, and better results in teaching/learning process, which will be beneficial both for learners and teachers alike.

It is difficult to predict whether the Communicative Method will last any longer than its predecessors but it can't be denied that the work of the innovators constitutes a challenge to convention thinking about language teaching, which is unfortunately “stubbornly” adhered by many classroom teachers and teacher-practitioners.

Current Trends

What is current methodology? Do we have to abandon all we have learned of the Audio-Lingual method, the Direct Method (DM), and start anew? Thus far, the suggestions for change have been gentle, but we have not been left with a vacuum to be filed. Judging from techniques and trends of the past few years, we can see that current thinking methodology seems to be in the direction of: - relaxation of some extreme restrictions of A-LM and DM; - development of techniques requiring a more active use of the students mental detail.

Let us examine these two trends in some detail.

Teachers have found that a close adherence to the listening-speaking-reading-writing order has not always been effective and brought the desired results.

On the other hand a lack of such adherence has not proved harmful. They has also called into question the theory that speech is primary and reading and writing are secondary manifestations. Such theoretical and experimental rethinking has resulted in the current trend toward teaching and testing the various language skills in more integrated way. The close procedure provides an interesting and thought-provoking exercise, which trains the students to look carefully at all structural clues and to range around within a semantic field for related concerts. It is a good preparation for careful reading and a useful overall written test.

The teachers no longer feel the need to defer or widely separate reading and writing lessons from listening and speaking activities.

Similarly the prohibition against using the student's native language has been considerably relaxed. It is just more efficient to give explanations and instructions in the native language because it affords more time for really meaningful practice in English.

Notable among current trends is the more practical recognition of the varying needs of learners. If, for instance, a learner needs a reading knowledge of English above all else, then reading must have priority, and the learner must learn this skill through specific guided practice in reading.

Another question is whether the teacher should polish learner's structure so as to exclude a change of making a mistake. That “prohibition” of errors way largely due to the fear that mistakes would contribute to the creation of a bad habit. Now that the “habit theory” of language acquisition has been challenged and creative aspects of language learning emphasised, the teacher is freed from this fear. Student's creative involvement is more important to the learning process than the mere avoiding of errors (this doesn't mean that the teacher should not correct the student and provide necessary drill when appropriate).

Teachers for some time have felt a need of moving from A-LM (with its rigid structure pattern) to a less controlled situation in which the student can communicate his own ideas. Classroom activities may be grouped into four categories:

completely manipulative;

predominantly manipulative;

predominantly communicative;

completely communicative.

Examples of completely manipulative activity would be:

a) a drill in which the students merely repeat sentences after the teacher;

b) a simple substitution drill ( by showing a picture or explaining a scene from the students experience). The latter exercise could be made into a predominantly manipulative drill, that is it would include a small element of communication).

In a more advanced class the students retell a story the teacher has given them. Finally, an example of pure communication would be a free conversation among the members of the class, such as a role-playing, conference, etc.)

Cognitive Code-Learning Theory (CC-LT) or the Trend toward Cognitive Activity

The trend toward a more active use of the students' mental powers probably represents the most important effort of the cognitive theory of language acquisition. Advocates of the A-LM often advised the teacher to keep students "active" - since, they said, when a student is active he is learning. They advised him to have all his students saying things aloud in English during as much of the class period as possible. This was the chief reason for doing so much choral work. In this way the greatest number of

students could be actively participating - "using the language" as it was called .

Language learning is viewed as rule acquisition, not habit formation. Instruction is often individualized: learners are responsible for their own learning. Reading and writing are once again as important as listening and speaking; errors are viewed as inevitable.

But the utility of such "active" use of the language has been challenged by proponents of CC-LT. They point out that the mere mechanical repetition of language forms is in reality passive rather than active learning, for it is primarily - sometimes almost entirely - a physical, mechanical sort of activity. It does not begin to engage the student's full mental powers. CC-LT, as a FLT method, is based on the following principal assumptions:

1. language is a system of signs, governed by its own rules;

2. CC-LT implies recognition of form, perception of meaning, relations of universals and particulars, generalisation and analogy;

3. the assimilation of material is directly proportional to the degree of its comprehension;

4. language is more than a system of habits which can be formed through

Systematic drills;

5. language learning is a creative process, therefore the student should

be as mentally active as possible in all assigned work:

6. a) drills and exercises should be meaningful;

b) deductive use of exercises designed to teach grammar structures (deductive explanations, i.e. rule prior to practice, starting with the rule and then offering examples to show how this rule applies);

c) rote learning is to be avoided;

d) reading and writing should be taught at early stages along with

listening and speaking;

e) occasional use of student's native language for explanation of new grammar and vocabulary is beneficial.

The cognitive principles of learning can conveniently be

summarised under three headings:

1. the need for experience;

2. the process of assimilation;

3. developmental stages.

These three principles are not only suited to adult learners but they have been readily adopted in the primary school, and the following are suggestions for practicing cognitive principles in the classroom with younger children:

a) Give experience of the language they are learning - teach them poems, rhymes, songs, tell them stories, talk to them.

b) Give them activities - painting, modeling, playing game, etc.

c) Don't stick rigidly to a predetermined language syllabus - allow the activities that take place in the class to range freely and develop naturally and let the occurrence of stimulating events that happen in the environment influence the vocabulary and structures that are introduced and practiced in each lesson.

Viewing language learning as a natural creative process rather than as habit formation, suggests that the teacher should provide guided practice in thinking in the language rather than a mere repetition drill. Such mental involvement tends to make language learning more enjoyable tor the student, - hence improved attitudes and better results.

It seems also appropriate to remind ourselves that teaching involves much more than a knowledge of methods. However well-versed a teacher may be in psychological and linguistic theories, in techniques and methodologies, his knowledge alone will not assure success. An even more basic ingredient of all good teaching is the teacher's attitude toward his students and his work.

We must recognise the teacher's compassionate, intelligent, individual approach to his work as the essential factor in successful language teaching,

To sum it up, language in CC-LT is viewed as an abstract model, governed by its own rules; language material is assimilated in blocks, not discretely i.e. in their constitutive elements; assimilation is directly proportional to comprehension; frequency of contrast is more important than frequency of repetition. According to this theory assimilation of language is achieved by conscious control over phonological, grammatical, and lexical models of a foreign language by way of conscious learning and analysis.

And, finally, practice and pedagogical experimenting shows that the priority of a certain methods is not justified. Some specialists believe that a creative synthesis of provisions of every method (eclecticism) may yield good results.

1.1.2. Current Concepts in secondary school graduates EFL

While the field of teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) to high

school graduates has its own unique terms and concepts, it often draws

from the professional vocabulary of other areas of education such as K-

12, adult basic education, and higher education. This article presents a

selection of such terms and concepts, discussing them as they are

applied in the adult ESL context and citing sources where they are

described with adult immigrant learners in mind. Some terms are broad,

representing theories or approaches, while others might be more

accurately described as methods or techniques. Most are mutually

supportive and can be integrated in instruction to expand and enrich learning in any EFL setting.

Authentic or Alternative Assessment

Authentic or alternative assessment describes efforts to document learner achievement through activities that require integration and application of knowledge and skills and are based on classroom instruction. Ideally, these assessments are relevant to real-life contexts and include activities such as creating a budget, completing a project, or participating in an interview Authentic assessments are criterion referenced, in that

criteria for successful performance are established and clearly articulated. They focus

on the learning process as well as the products and they include means for learner

self-assessment and reflection. Often, authentic assessments are used in conjunction

with standardized tests to provide a more complete picture of learner progress.

Examples of authentic assessment include performance-based assessment, learner self-assessment, and portfolios. Performance-based assessment activities require learners to integrate acquired knowledge and skills to solve realistic or authentic problems, such as taking telephone messages, completing an application, or giving directions. Self assessment refers to checklists, logs, reflective journals, or

questionnaires completed by learners that highlight their strategies, attitudes, feelings, and accomplishments throughout the learning process .

Portfolio assessment consists of a systematic collection of the learners' work (such as writing samples, journal entries, worksheets, recorded speech samples, or standardized test results) to show individual progress toward meeting instructional objectives .

Computer-Assisted Language Learning

The use of computer-based technologies for language instruction is known as computer-assisted language learning (CALL). Computer software, including multimedia applications, and the Internet and the World Wide Web are examples of such technologies at use in language programs today.

Computer technologies can provide a course of instruction, facilitate activities and tasks, or create opportunities for additional practice . CALL

can also be structured to promoted teamwork and collaboration among the learners, a necessity for those programs with limited access to technology . It can be incorporated in instruction as an integral part of a class, as an option that learners access individually, or in some combination of class-based and self-access models.

Using technology can sometimes be difficult. The planning

process should involve consideration of at least the following elements: the needs and goals of the program, instructional focus, staffing, software and hardware availability or accessibility, learners' learning goals; and learners' and staffs' experiences with and attitudes toward computer use .

Critical Literacy Theory

Critical literacy theory expands the discussion of literacy practice beyond the basic functions of reading and writing. Where traditional literacy instruction might focus on skills such as decoding, predicting, or summarizing, critical literacy theory encourages critical examination of text, especially the social, political, and ideological elements present. Based in the assumption that literacy practices have the capability to

both reflect and shape the issues and power relationships at play in the larger society, critical literacy theory seeks to empower learners through development of critical and analytical literacy skills .

In the general sense, critical literacy theory encourages teachers to create instructional activities that help learners use analytical skills to question and respond to such elements as perspective, purpose, effect, or relevance of what they read and write.

For example, a teacher might prompt learners to distinguish fact from

opinion in a newspaper editorial or to identify an author's position on a topic and compare it to their own. The focus is on the learner as decision maker and active interpreter in reading and writing activities.

Family and Intergenerational Literacy

Family literacy has traditionally described the use of literacy within the context of the family, often as related to early childhood development and parental support of children's school achievement. Intergenerational literacy broadens that description, recognizing that relationships between adults and children, both within and outside the traditional definition of the family unit, affect the literacy use and development of all involved. Family literacy programs for ESL populations generally use family and

family relationships as content and involve at least two generations of participants.

The goals of family and intergenerational literacy programs are varied. Some focus on the family and school, seeking to increase parental involvement, improve communication, increase schools' responsiveness to communities, and support children's academic achievement . Others pursue broader objectives, such as furthering literacy skills development and positive behaviors linked to reading for both adults and children. Still others focus on facilitating the reconnection of generations divided by different linguistic and cultural experiences.

Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles

Multiple intelligences and learning style preferences both refer to the ways that individuals approach information processing and learning. Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that there are at least seven different abilities that individuals can develop to solve problems or create products:

? verbal/linguistic,

? musical,

? logical/mathematical,

? spatial/visual,

? bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, and

? intrapersonal .

Each intelligence is distinguished by its own competencies and skills and directly influences the way an individual will interpret and utilize information.
Learning styles are the broad preferences that learners tend to exhibit when faced with new content or problems that need to be solved. These styles encompass cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements, and describe learners in terms of their preferences for group or individual learning contexts, the degree to which they separate details

from complex backgrounds (field dependent vs. field independent), or their affinity for analytic, abstract perspectives as opposed to more integrated, comprehensive ones (analytic vs. global) .

Awareness of different intelligences and learning styles, and individuals' preferences for them can help teachers create positive learning experiences . By varying instructional activities to accommodate learners'

preferences (lectures, visuals, hands-on activities, songs) or by offering options for responses to instruction (write a paper, create a model, give a demonstration), teachers can support learners' access to and understanding of content.

Practitioner Inquiry, Reflective Teaching, and Action Research

Practitioner inquiry, reflective teaching, and action research refer to a teacher-centered approach to professional and staff development. Like the learner-centered approach to instruction, which focuses on the needs of the learners and respects them as partners in the learning process, these approaches to professional development put practitioners at the center of the process defining, investigating, and addressing issues

in their own teaching .

These models require practitioners to become researchers and take a questioning stance towards their work. Rather than focusing on their deficits, teachers concentrate on their strengths and interests as means for enhancing their knowledge and teaching skills . The following steps are usually part of the process: reflecting upon practice as a means of identifying a problem or question; gathering information on that problem or question; examining and reflecting on the data gathered; planning some action based on the information; implementing the action planned; monitoring and evaluating the changes that may or may not result

from the action; and collaborating or sharing with colleagues . These

terms and similar variations are often used interchangeably, their differences typically illustrating the elements emphasized, in other words, reflective teaching highlights ongoing self-assessment while action research focuses on planning, implementing, and evaluating actual changes in the classroom.

Project-based Education

Project-based education is an instructional approach that seeks to contextualize language learning by involving learners in projects, rather than in isolated activities targeting specific skills. Project-based learning activities generally integrate language and cognitive skills, connect to real-life problems, generate high learner interest, and involve some cooperative or group learning skills . Unlike instruction where content is organized by themes that relate and contextualize material to be learned, project-based learning presents learners with a problem to solve or a product to produce. They must then plan and execute activities to achieve

their objectives.

Projects selected may be complex and require an investment of time and resources, or they may be more modest in scale. Examples of projects include a class cookbook, an international food bazaar, a folktale-based story hour at a local library, a neighborhood services directory, or a class web page . In the selection of projects and activities, it is important to include learners' input, as well as to consider carefully how the project will fit with overall instructional goals and objectives .

Chapter 2. Theory of Multiple Intelligences.

2.1. Gardner's Theory.

Arguing that "reason, intelligence, logic, knowledge are not synonymous...," Howard Gardner (1983) proposed a new view of intelligence that is rapidly being incorporated in school curricula. In his Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Gardner expanded the concept of intelligence to also include such areas as music, spacial relations, and

interpersonal knowledge in addition to mathematical and linguistic ability.

This research discusses the origins of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences, his definition of intelligence, the incorporation of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences into the classroom, and its role in alternative assessment practices.

Definition

According to Howard Gardner, as presented in his book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, human intelligence has the following characteristics:

-A set of skills that enable a person to resolve genuine problems encountered in life.

-The Ability to create an effective product or offer a service that is valued in a culture.

-The Potential for recognizing or creating problems, thereby establishing the necessity for the new knowledge.

Howard Gardner said in his book: “it becomes necessary to say, once and for all, that there can never be, a single irrefutable and universally accepted list of human intelligences.

Though an exhaustive list of every intelligence may not be possible, identifying intelligences is important for at least two reasons:

-Classification of Human Intellectual Competencies which will allow a better understanding of humanity.

-Identification of Intellectual Strengths which will enable researchers to communicate more accurately about the concept of Intellect.

Seven Intelligences

Gardner defines intelligence as "the capacity to solve problems or to fashion product that are valued in one or more cultural setting". Using biological as well as cultural research, he formulated a list of seven intelligences. This new outlook on intelligence differs greatly from the traditional view which usually recognizes only two intelligences, verbal and computational. The seven intelligences Gardner defines are:

2.1.1 Linguistic Intelligence

Linguistic intelligence (or verbal-linguistic) is the ability to use with clarity the core operations of language. It involves having a mastery of language. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively manipulate language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically. It also allows one to use language as a means to remember information.

People with linguistic intelligence have a sensitivity to the meaning of words--the capacity to follow rules of grammar, and, on carefully selected occasions, to violate them. At a somewhat more sensory level--a sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, inflections, and meters of words--that ability which can make even poetry in a foreign tongue beautiful to hear. And a sensitivity to the different functions of language--its potential to excite, convince, stimulate, convey information, or simply to please.

People such as poets, authors, reporters, speakers, attorneys, talk-show hosts, politicians, lecturers, and teachers may exhibit developed linguistic intelligence.

2.1.2 Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

Logical-Mathematical intelligence is logical and mathematical ability as well as scientific ability. It consists of the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.

Abstraction is fundamental, reasoning is complex, and problem-solution is natural.

Order and sequence are significant. There is a drive to know causality as well as the explication of existence.

People such as mathematicians, engineers, physicists, esearchers, astronomers, and scientists may exhibit developed logical-mathematical intelligence.

2.1.3 Intra-Personal Intelligence

Intra-Personal intelligence is the ability to form an accurate model of oneself, and to use that model to operate effectively in life. At a basic level, it is the capacity to distinguish feelings of pleasure from emotional pain and , on the basis of such discrimination, to become more involved in or to withdraw from a situation. At the most advanced level, interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to detect and to

symbolize complex and high differentiated sets of feelings.

People such as some novelists, therapists, sages, psychologists, and philosophers may exhibit developed intra-personal intelligence.

2.1.4 Inter-Personal Intelligence

Inter-personal intelligence is the ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals and, in particular, among their moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions. Examined in its most elementary form, the inter-personal intelligence entails the capacity of the young child to detect and discriminate the various moods of

those around them. In an advanced form, it permits a skilled adult to read the intentions and desires--even when those desires have been hidden--of many other individuals and, potentially, act upon this knowledge.

People such as politicians, religious leaders, and those in the helping professions may exhibit developed inter-personal intelligence.

The last two intelligences are separate from each other. Nevertheless, because of their close association in most cultures, they are often linked together.

2.1.5 Musical Intelligence

Musical intelligence (or Musical-rhythmic) is the ability to use the core set of musical elements--pitch, rhythm, and timbre (understanding the characteristic qualities of a tone). Auditory functions are required for a person to develop this intelligence in relation to pitch and tone, but it is not needed for the knowledge of rhythm. There may be a hierarchy of difficulty involved in various roles--composition, performance, listening.

People such as singers, composers, instrumentalists, conductors, and those who enjoy, understand, use, create, perform, and appreciate music and/or elements of music may exhibit developed musical intelligence.

2.1.6 Spatial Intelligence

Spatial intelligence (or visual-spatial) is the capacity to perceive the world accurately, and to be able to recreate one's visual experience. It gives one the ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems. This intelligence is not limited to visual domains--Gardner notes that spatial intelligence is also formed in blind children. It entails a number of loosely related capacities: the ability to recognize instances of the same element; the ability to recognize transformations of

one element in another; the capacity to conjure up mental imagery and then to transform that imagery; the ability to produce a graphic likeness of spatial information; and the like. A person with a good sense of direction or the ability to move and operate well in the world would indicate spatial intelligence.

People such as sailors, engineers, surgeons, sculptors, painters, cartographers, and architects may exhibit developed spatial intelligence.

2.1.7 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use one's mental abilities to coordinate one's own bodily movements and the ability to handle objects skillfully. This intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and physical activity are unrelated.

People such as actors, dancers, swimmers, acrobats, athletes, jugglers,

instrumentalists and artisans may exhibit developed bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.

2.1.8 Naturalistic Intelligence

The following definition is an abbreviation and adaptation by J. Keith Rogers and based upon his study of Howard Gardner's theory:

Naturalistic intelligence is the ability to understand, relate to, categorize, classify, comprehend, and explain the things encountered in the world of nature.

People such as farmers, ranchers, hunters, gardeners, and animal handlers may exhibit developed naturalistic intelligence.

Although the intelligences are anatomically separated from each other, Gardner claims that the seven intelligences very rarely operate independently. Rather, the

intelligences are used concurrently and typically complement each other as individuals develop skills or solve problems. For example, a dancer can excel in his art only if he has

1) strong musical intelligence to understand the rhythm and

variations of the music,

2) interpersonal intelligence to understand how he can inspire or emotionally move his audience through his movements, as well as

3) bodily-kinesthetic intelligence to provide him with the agility and coordination to complete the movements successfully.

Basis for Intelligence

Gardner argues that there is both a biological and cultural basis for the multiple intelligences. Neurobiological research indicates that learning is an outcome of the modifications in the synaptic connections between cells. Primary elements of different types of learning are found in particular areas of the brain where corresponding transformations have occurred. Thus, various types of learning results in synaptic connections in different areas of the brain. For example, injury to the Broca's area of the brain will result in the loss of one's ability to verbally

communicate using proper syntax. Nevertheless,this injury will not remove the patient's understanding of correct grammar and word usage.

In addition to biology, Gardner (1983) argues that culture also plays a large role in the development of the intelligences. All societies value different types of intelligences.

The cultural value placed upon the ability to perform certain tasks provides the motivation to become skilled in those areas. Thus, while particular intelligences might be highly evolved in many people of one culture, those same intelligences might not be as developed in the individuals of another.

2.2. Psychological analysis of Gardner's Theory

Despite swings of the pendulum between theoretical and applied concerns, the concept of intelligence has remained central to the field of psychology. In the wake of the Darwinian revolution, when scientific psychology was just beginning, many scholars became interested in the development of intelligence across species. The late 19th and early 20th centuries were punctuated by volumes that delineated levels of