Comparative Analysis of the Compound Words

· "De facto proceedings" not (de - facto)

If, however, there is no risk of ambiguities, it may be written without a hyphen: "Sunday morning walk". Hyphenated compound adjectives may have been formed originally by an adjective preceding noun:

· "Round table" - "round - table discussion"

· "Blue sky" - "blue sky law"

· "Red light" - "red light district"

· "Four wheels" - "four wheel drive" (the singular, not the plural is used).

Others may have originated with a verb preceding and adjective or adv: "feel good" - "feel - good factor", "by now, pay later" - "by - now pay - later purchase".

Yet others are created with an original verb preceding a preposition:

· "Stick on" - "stick - on label"

· "Walk on" - "walk - on part"

· "Stand by" - "stand - by fare"

· "Roll on; roll off" - "roll - on roll - off ferry".

The following compound adjectives are always hyphenated when they are not written as one word:

· An adjective preceding a noun to which -d or -ed has been added as a past - participle construction, used before a noun:

o "loud - mouthed hooligan"

o "middle - aged lady"

o "rose - tinted glasses "

· A noun, adjective, or adv preceding a present participle:

o "an awe - inspiring personality"

o "a long - lasting affair"

o "a far -reaching decision"

· Numbers spelled out or as numerals:

o "seven-year itch"

o "five-sided polygon"

o "20^th-century poem"

o "30-pice band"

o "tenth-story window"

· A numeric with the affix -fold has a hyphen (15-fold), but when spelled out takes a solid construction (fifteen fold).

· Numbers, spelled out or numeric, with added -odd: sixteen -odd, 70-odd.

· Compound adjectives with high- or low-: "high-level discussion", "low-price markup".

· Colors in compounds:

o "a dark-blue sweater"

o "a reddish-orange dress".

· Fractions as modifiers are hyphenated: "five-eight inches", but if numerator or denominators are already hyphenated, the fraction itself does not take a hyphen: "a thirty-three thousandth part".

· Fraction used as nouns have no hyphens: "I ate only one third of pie".

· Comparatives and superlatives in compound adjectives also take hyphens:

o "the highest-placed competitor"

o "A shorter-term loan".

· However, a construction with most is not hyphenated:

o "The most respected member".

· Compounds including two geographical modifiers:

o "Afro-Cuban"

o "African-American" (sometimes)

o "Anglo-Asian"

· But not

o "Central American".

The following compound adjectives are not normally hyphenated:

· Where there is no risk of ambiguity:

o "a Sunday morning walk"

· Left-hand components of a compound adjective that end in -ly that modify right-hand components that are past participles (ending in -ed):

o "a hotly disputed subject"

o "a greatly improved scheme"

o "a distantly related celebrity"

· Compound adjectives that include comparatives and superlatives with more, most, less or least:

o "a more recent development"

o "the most respected member"

o "a less opportune moment"

o "the least expected event"

· Ordinarily hyphenated compounds with intensive adv in front of adjectives:

o "very much admired classicist"

o "Really well accepted proposal".

English compound adjectives are formed:

1. Adjective + noun: blackboard

2. Adjective + adjective: blue-green, dark-red, light-green.

3. Adjective + verb: highlight

4. Adjective + preposition: forthwith.

In Uzbek compound adjectives are formed in the following way:

1. Noun + noun - these adjectives are written separately: ?аво ранг, кул ранг

2. Adjective + noun - these adjectives are written as one word: ?имматба?о

3. Noun or adverb a verb with the suffix "ap": тезо?ар, эрксевар, ме?натсевар

But these adjectives are hyphenated when we translate it into English: ме?натсевар - hard-working, эрксевар - peace - loving and etc.

4. Noun + "apo" word: хал?аро as in English international.

There are a group of words which form compound adjectives, such as: аралаш, йў?, кўл, олий, оч, тў?, тўла, чала: ?умаралаш лой, тенги йў? ?из, кўп тармо?ли со?а, олий маълумотли, оч ?изил, ?орни тў?, тў? ?изил.

In English we can also find the signal words which form compound adjectives; but they are hyphenated: light, dark, long, middle, high: e.g. light - green, dark-blue, middle-aged, long-legged, and high-qualified.

German compound adjectives are formed like English compound adjectives.

1. Adjective + adjective + Adjektive = shwarzweissrot.

Deutsch + usbekisch = deutsch - usbekisch

2. Hell + grun = hell - grun. As in English light - green

3. Adjektive + Adverb = bekannt + in der Welt = Wellbekannt

машхур + дунёда = дунёга машхур

hart + wie Stahl = Stahlhart

?атти? + пўлатдай

This kind of adjectives always express comparison rot + wie ziegel = ziegelrot - красный как кирпич

blau + wie himmel = himmelblau - синий как небо

But in English “as … as” is used to show comparison: as blue as the sky

2.3.3 Compound Verbs

In Uzbek compound verbs are formed by joining two words:

1. Verb + noun - verb word: дам олмо? (to rest), ?имоя ?илмо?(to defend), пайдо бўлмо?(to appear).

Some of them are synonyms to simple verbs:

ёрдам бермо?, = ёрдамлашмо?, - to help - to give a hand

2. Verb + verb = сотиб олмо?, чи?ариб олмо?, ютиб олмо?.

Some verbs such as ў?иб чи?ди, кўриб бўлди, бошлаб юборди are not compound verbs in speech. They have no a new lexical meaning.

Verbs which are considered compound , may not be a compound verb in English and German:

му?окама ?илмо? - to discuss (simple verb)

?олиб бўлмо? - to win

In German the main word of compound verb is the second word, but modifying one will be:

· Noun:

teilnehmen - ?атнашмо?

rad fahren - велосипедда учмо?

· Adjective:

fertigmachen-tayorlamoq, oxiragacha bajarmoq.

festhalten - ushlamoq.

leichtfallen - oson bo`lmoq

· Verb: kennenlernen - знакомитъся.

2.3.4 Classification of compound Words Based on Correlation

· According to the type of correlation all productive types of compound words may be classified into four major classes:

1. Adjectival-nominal compounds comprise four subgroups of compound adjectives-three of them are proper and one derivational, they are built after the following formulas and patterns:

· a, b) the n+a formula, e. g. snow-white, colour-blind, journey-tired correlative; with word-groups of the A + as+N,. A +prp+N type, e. g. white as snow, blind to colours, tired of journey. The structure is polysemantic;

· c) the s+ved formula, e g. fear-stained, duty-bound, wind-driven correlated with word-groups of the type Ved with/by+N, e. g. stained with tears, bound by duty, etc. The distributional formula is monosemantic and is based on the instrumental relations between the components;

· d) num+n formula, e. g. (a) two-day (beard), (a) seven-year (plan), (a) forty-hour (week) correlative with Num + N type of phrases, e. g. two days, seven years, etc. Adjectives of this subgroup are used only attributively;

· e) the (a+n) + -ed pattern of derivational compounds, e. g. long-legged, low-ceilinged. This structure includes two more variants; the first member of the first component may be a numeral stem or a noun-stem (num+n) +-ed, (n+n) +-ed, e. g. one-sided, three-cornered, doll-faced, bell-shaped. Compounds of this subgroup are correlative with phrases of the type--with (having) + A+N, with (having) + Num+N, with (having)+N+N (or N+of+N), e. g. with (or having) a low ceiling, with (or having) one side, with (or having) three corners, with (or having) a doll face for with (or having) the face of a doll, with (or having) the shape of a bell.

· The system of productive types of compound adjectives may be presented as follows (table 2).

2. Verbal-nominal compounds belong to compound nouns. They may all be described through one general distributional structure n+n_v, i. e. a combination of a simple noun-stem with a deverbal noun-stem. This formula includes four patterns differing in the character of the deverbal noun-stern. They are all based on verbal-nominal word-groups, built after the formula V+N or V+prp+N:

· a) [n+v+-er)] pattern, e. g. bottle-opener, stage-manager, baby-sitter, peace-fighter, is monosemantic and is based on agcntive relations that can be interpreted as 'one who does smth';

· b) [n+ (v+-ing)] pattern, e. g, rocket-flying, stage-managing, is monosemantic and may be interpreted as 'the act of doing smth';

c) [n+ (v+tion/-ment)] pattern, e. g. price-reduction, office-management, is monosemantic and may be interpreted as 'the act of doing smth';

d) compound nouns with the structure n+(v+ conversion), i, e. a combination of - a simple noun-stem with a deverbal noun-stem resulting from conversion, e. g. wage-art, dog-bite, chimney-sweep. The pattern is monosemantic.

3. V e r b a l v e r b compounds are a11 derivational compound nouns built after one formal n [(v+adv)+conversion] and correlative with phrases of the V+Adv type, a. g. a break-down from (to) break down, a hold-up from (to): hold up, a lay-out from (to) lay out. The pattern is polysemantic and is circumscribed by the manifold semantic relations typical of conversion pairs.¹¹ See `Word - Formation', § 17.

4. Nominal compounds are all nouns built after the most polysemantic distributional formula (n+n); both stems are in most cases simple, e. g. pencil-case, windmill, horse-race. Compounds of this class correlate with nominal word-groups mostly characterized by the N+prp+N structure.

Table 3 shows the system of productive types of compound nouns of these three structural classes.

2.3.5 Distributional formulas of Subordinative Compounds

The internal structure of subordinative compounds is marked by a specific pattern of order and arrangement in which the stems follow one another. The order in which the stems are placed within a compound is rigidly fixed in Modern English as the structural centre of the word is always its second component. Stems of almost every part of speech are found in compounds but they are combined to make up compound words according to a set of rigid rules for every part of speech. The choice of stems and the rules of their arrangement and order are known as distributional or structural formulas and patterns of compound words.

As to the order of components subordinative compound words may be classified into two groups:

a) Syntactic compounds whose components are placed in the order that resembles the order of words in free phrases arranged according to the rules of syntax of Modern English.

The order of the stems in compounds, e.g. bluebell, slowcoach, mad - doctor (a+n) reminds one of the order and arrangement of the corresponding words in phrases like a blue bell, a slow coach, a mad doctor (A+N); compounds like, e.g. know - nothing, kill-joy, tell-tale made up on the formula v+n resemble the arrangement of words in phrases like (to) kill joy, (to) know nothing, (to) tell tales (V+N); the order of components in compounds consisting of two noun - stems door-handle, day-time (n+n) resembles the order of words in nominal phrases with the attributive function of the first noun as in stone wall, spring time, peace movement, etc. (N+N).

b) Asyntactic compounds whose stems are not placed in the order in which the corresponding words can be brought together under the rules of syntax of the language. For example it is universally known that in free phrases adjectives cannot be modified by adjectives, noun modifiers cannot be placed before adjectives or participles, ye t this kind of asyntactic arrangement of stems is typical of compounds among which we find combinations of two adjective stems, e.g. red-hot, bluish-black, pale-blue; words made up of noun - stems placed before adjective or participle stems, e.g. oil-rich, tear-stained, etc.

Both syntactic and asyntactic compound words in each part of speech should be described in terms of their distributional formulas. For example, compound adjectives are mostly formed of noun, adjective or participle stems according to the formulas n+a, e.g. oil-rich, world-wide; n+ved¹¹ For conventional symbols see `Word - Formation', § 8. , e.g. snow-covered, home-grown; a+a, e.g. pale-green, red-hot, etc.

Borderline between compound words and free word-groups

Compound words as inseparable vocabulary units taking shape in a definite system of grammatical forms and syntactic characteristics are generally clearly distinguished from and often opposed to free word-groups. Their inseparability finds expression in the unity of their structural, phonetic and graphic integrity.

Chapter IV

2.4 Compound words and free word groups

Compound words as inseparable vocabulary units are on the one hand clearly distinguished from free word-groups by a combination of their specific stress pattern, spelling and their distributional formulas. On the other hand, compound words in Modern English lie astride the border between words and word-groups and display many features common to word-groups, thus revealing close lies and parallelism with the system of free phrases.¹¹ Prof. A. I. Smirnitsky as far back as the late forties pointed out rigid parallelism existing between free word - groups and derivational compound adjectives which he termed “grammatical compounds". The linguistic analysis of extensive language data proves that there exists a rigid correlation between the system of free phrases and all types of subordinative compounds. The correlation embraces both the structure and the meaning of compound words and seems to be the pivot point of the entire system of productive present-day English composition. The analysis of the structural and semantic correlation between compound words and free word-groups enables us to find the features most relevant to composition and set e system o; ordered rules for productive formulas after which an infinite number of new compounds constantly appear in the language.

Structural Correlation.

There is a correlation and parallelism between the structure of subordinative compound words and corresponding phrases, which manifests it in the morphological character of the components. Compound words are generally made up of the stems of those parts of speech that form the corresponding free word-groups. The stem of the central member or she head²² See `Word-Groups and Morphological Units', § 3. of the word-group becomes the structural and semantic centre of the compound, i.e. its second component. e.g. heart-sick, is made up of the stems of "the noun' heart and adjective sick which form the corresponding phrase sick at heart, with the adjective sick for its head; man-made consists of the stems of the words that make the corresponding phrase made by man; door-handle similarly corresponds to the handle of the door, clasp-knife to the knife that clasps, etc. In all these cases the stem of the head-member of the word-group, in our case sick-, made-, handle- becomes the structural centre of the corresponding compound, i.e. its second component.

The order of the stems coincides with the word-order in word-groups only in the case of syntactic compounds, such as, e.g., blackboard, mad-doctor, pickpocket, tell-tale, etc., in which the structural centre takes the same place as the head of corresponding word-groups.

In compounds each part of speech correlates only with certain structural types of phrases. For example, productive compound adjectives reveal correlation mostly with adjectival-nominal word-groups,¹¹ Adjectival-nominal word-groups is a conventional term of this type of word-groups. i.e. word-groups whose heads are adjectives (or Numerals and Participles) of the type A+prp+N, V_ed+ by/with+N, with+A+N, e.g, adjectives oil-rich, heart-sick correspond to word-groups rich in oil, sick at heart (i.e., n+a>A+prp+N); duty-bound, smoke-filled to bound by duty, filled with smoke (i.e., n+ved+Ved+by/with+N); low-ceilinged to with a low ceiling {[(a+n) +ed] >with+A+N}. Productive compound nouns correlate mostly with nominal word-groups (consisting of two nouns), verbal-nominal and verb-adverb word-groups, e.g.. Moonlight, diving-suit, correspond to the light of the moon, a suit for diving" (i.e. n+n>N+prp+N): proof-reader, peace-fighting to (to) read proofs, (to) fight for peace (i.e., n+nv>V+N, V+prp+N), etc. So it follows that the distributional formulas of compound words in each part of speech are circumscribed by the structure of correlated word-groups.

Semantic Correlation.

Semantically, the relations between the components of a compound mirror the semantic relations between the member-words in correlated word-groups. The semantic relations established between the components, for example, in compound adjectives built after n+ved formula, e.g. duty-bound, snow-covered are circumscribed by the instrumental relations typical of the members of correlated word-groups of the type Ved + by /with+N regardless of the actual lexical meanings of the stems; compound adjectives of the (a+n)+ed pattern like long-legged, straight-backed mirror possessive relations found between words in correlated word-groups of the with+A+N type, e.g. with long legs, with a straight back; compound nouns built after the pattern n+(v+-er)--letter-writer, bottle-opener, traffic-controller display agentive semantic relations typical of word-groups 'one who writes letters'; 'the thing that opens bottles' built after the general formula N that V+N.

Structural and semantic correlation by no means implies a one-to-one correspondence of each individual pattern of compound words to one word-group formula or pattern. For example the n+nv formula of compound nouns comprises different patterns such as [n+(v+-er)] rocket-flyer, bottle- opener, cover-shooter, [n+(v+-ing] street-fighting, rocket-flying, cover-shooting; both patterns correlate in the final analysis with verbal-nominal word-groups of one formula--V+N or V+prp+N,e.g. to flyrockets, to fight in the streets, to shoot from a cover. However, the reverse relationship is not uncommon, e;g. one distributional formula of compound adjectives (n+a) in words like age-long, sky-high, colour
blind corresponds to a variety of individual word-group patterns which differ in the grammatical and semantic relations between member-words expressed by the preposition, thus, compounds journey-tired, girl-shy, oil-rich, world-wide correspond to tired of journey (A+of+N), shy before girls (A+before+N); rich in oil (A+in+N);wide as the world (A+as+N). Nominal compound made up of two simple noun-stems (n+n) may serve, as another example of the semantic correlation between formulas of compound nouns with a variety of individual patterns of nominal word-groups. Compound nouns like doorstep, hand-bag, handcuffs incorporate manifold semantic relations found between member-words of various patterns of the general formula of word-groups N+prp+N. Nominal compounds appear to express freely in a concise form what can be expressed only in a more elaborate and complicated periphrastic way by word-groups. "It should be remembered that the semantic relations in some cases may be interpreted differently.

Even the few examples given as illustration lead us to the conclusion that the structure of compound words, as a rule, is more concise and of much wider semantic range than the structure of correlated word-groups due to the fact that compound words do not require any elaborates way to express the relationship between their components except their order. Therefore compound words which establish regular correlative relations with word-groups are on the one hand motivated and on the other hand serve as patterns, or sets of structural and semantic rules guiding the spontaneous formation of new compound words. Consequently motivation and regular semantic and structural correlation between compound words and word-groups may be regarded as factors which arc most conducive to high productivity of compound words. It is natural that formulas which do not establish such regular correlative" relations and which result in compound words characterized by lack or very low degree of motivation, must he regarded as unproductive, for example, compound nouns built after a+n formula, e. g. blackbird, bluebell, mad-doctor, etc., are marked by lack of motivation or high degree of idiomaticity, hence the formula a+n for compound nouns is unproductive for Modern English.

Chapter V

2.5 Diachronic approach to compound words

Like all other linguistic phenomena compounding may be approached synchronically and diachronically. If a synchronic treatment concentrates on structural and semantic features relevant for productive patterning of compound words, the diachronic treatment is concerned with the various changes compound words undergo in the course of time and the way compound words appear in the language. Once a compound has been formed it is subject to all the phonological changes affecting English polysyllabic words. Various changes in the phonetic structure and stress pattern of compound words may result in a number of changes in its morphemic structure. The separate morphemes in a compound may become fused or even lost altogether; the meanings of the components may also fuse in the course of time into a newer meaning or become forgotten. As a result of this process, known as the process of simplification, compound words may undergo such radical changes that they may be even transformed into derived or simple words. For illustration of historical development of the morphemic structure of compounds see `Word-Structure', § 5.

Productive types of compound nouns Table 3

Free Phrases	Compound Nouns
	Compounds Proper	Derivational Compounds	Pattern
A. Verbal-Nominal Phrases 1. the reducer of price to reduce 2. the reducing of prices prices 3. the reduction of prices to shake 4. the shake of hands hands	1. price-reducer 2. price-reducing 3. price-reduction 4. hand-shake		[n + (v+- er)] [n+ -ing)] [n+(v+--tion/ -ment)] [n + (v+ conversion) ]
B. Verb-Adverb Phrases to break down to cast away to run away		a break-down a castaway a runaway	[(v+ adv) + conversion ]
C. Nominal Phrases 1. a tray or ashes 2. the neck of the bottle 3. a house in the country; a chair with arms 4. a ship run by steam 5. the doctor is a woman 6. a fish resembling a sword	1. ash-tray 2. bottle-neck 3. country-house; arm-chair 4. steamship 5. woman-doctor 6. sword-fish		[n2 + n1]

There are many words in Modem English that do not in any way differ from the bulk of simple words and yet have undergone the process of simplification and may be traced back to their original compound structure.

Ways of Forming Compounds. Sources of Compounds

The actual process of building compound words may take different forms:

1) Compound words a rule are built spontaneously after productive distributional formulas of the given period. Formulas productive at one time may lose their productivity at another period. Thus at one time the process of building verbs by compounding adverbial and verbal stems was productive, and numerous compound verbs like, e, g. outgrow, overturn, overthrow (adv+v), were formed. The structure ceased to be productive and today no verbs are built in this way.

2) Compounds may be the result of a gradual process of semantic isolation and structural fusion of free word-groups. Such compounds as forget-me-not-- 'a small plant with blue¹ flowers', scarecrow (from an earlier scare-the-crows)--'a figure used to scare birds away from crops', pickpocket (from pick the pocket)--'one who steals from pockets', bridesmaid--'an unmarried woman attending the bride at a wedding', bull's-eye--'the centre of a target; a kind of hard, globular candy", mainland--'a continent' all go back to free phrases which became semantically and structurally isolated in the course of time. The words that once made up these phrases have lost, within these particular formations, their integrity, their part-of-speech meaning and the whole phrase has become isolated in form, specialized in meaning and thus turned into an inseparable unit--a word acquiring semantic and morphological unity.

Most of the syntactic compound nouns of the (a+n) structure, e. g. bluebell, blackboard, mad-doctor, are the result of such semantic and structural isolation of free word-groups; to give but one more example--highway was once actually a high way for it was raised above the surrounding countryside for better drainage and ease of travel. Now we use highway without any idea of the original sense of the first element.¹¹ The example is borrowed from A. Sheard, The Words We Use. Andre Deutsch, London, 1962.

Productive types of compound adjectives Table 3

Free Phrases	Compound Adjectives
	Compounds Proper	Derivational Compounds	Pattern	Semantic Relations
A. as white as snow	1. snow-white	--	n+a	Relations of resemblance
B. free from carp; rich in oil; greedy for power; tired of pleasure	2. care-free oil-rich power-greedy pleasure-tired	--	n+a	Various adverbial relations
C. covered with snow; bound by duty	3. snow-covered duty -bound	--	n +Ved	Instrumental (or agentive relations)
D. two days	4. (a) two-day (beard) (a) seven-year (plan)	--	num + n	Quantitative relations
E. with (having) long, legs	--	5. long-legged	(a+ n) + +ed	Possessive relations

Conclusion

Modern English is very rich in Compound words. Compound words are made up by joining two or more stems.

Ex: taxi-driver, in German Weltoffenheit, in Uzbek кунгабо?ар.

A compound word has a single semantic structure. We distinguish the meaning of the compound words from the combined lexical meaning of its components. Ex: “pencil-case” is a case for pencils. A change in the order of components of compound words brings a change in the lexical meaning.

Ex: life-boat - “a boat of special construction for saving lives. Boat-life - life on board of a ship.

Compound words are classified into completely motivated partially motivated and non-motivated compound words”.

In completely motivated compound words the lexical meaning of compounds is easily deduced from the lexical meanings of the stems.

Ex: book-case, door-handle.

German Lesesaal.

The compound words “a flower-bed, walk-up are partially motivated compounds because we can guess their meaning partially”. The compounds in which the connection between the meaning and structure and the meanings of components of compounds can not seen from the meaning of its components are called non-motivated compound words. Ex: wall-flower - a woman who remains at wall and is not invited to a dance.

Uzbek and German compounds don't have non-motivation. Compound words may be classified from the functional point of view or according to their belonging to different parts of speech.

Many of English and German compounds belong to nouns and adjectives while Uzbek compounds belong to nouns, adjectives and verbs:

Noun: looking-glass, armchair, homework.

Arbeitkleidung, Naturwissenschaft (German).

хонтахта, сувилон (Uzbek).

Adjective: hard-working, well-behaved, dry-drink.

hell - grun, weltbekannt.

?аво ранг, хал?аро, ме?натсевар.

Adverb: indoors, within, outside.

аллаким, шу ерда, у ерда.

From the point of view how the components are joined together the compound words may be classified into: a) components whose components are joined with a die Entwicklungslander, der Landbau.

This is also one of the criteria of distinguishing of compounds from word groups.

Like other linguistic phenomena we may approach to the study of compounds synchronically and diachronically. Synchronically we study the structural and semantic patterns of compound words while diachronically we study the various changes compound words undergone on the course of time and the way compound words appear in the language.

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