Idioms and slangs in M. Twain's work

Borrowed phraseological units come from several sources.

A number of units were borrowed from the Bible and were fully assimilated: to cast pearl before swine, the root of all evil, a woolf in sheep's clothing, to beat swords into plough-shares. A great amount of units were taken from ancient mythology and literature: the apple of discord, the golden age, the thread of Ariadne, at the greek calends (до греческих календ, никогда), etc, They are international in their character.

A lot of phraseologisms were borrowed from different languages - let's return to our muttons (revenons а nos moutons), blood and iron (принцип политики Бисмарка - Blut und Eisen), blue blood, to lose face (кит. tiu lien) and from the other variants of the English language (AmE) - a green light, bark up the wrong tree, to look like a million dollars, time is money (B. Franklin «Advice to a Young Tradesman»). [26, p. 234]

Conversation - building expressions - these are some common expressions that help to modify or organize what we are saying. There are many expressions like these. For example: as I was saying (it takes the conversation back to an earlier point). Some everyday expressions can be grouped around key words. The preposition «in» for example, occurs in several expressions: in fact (really), in practice (actually). Common expressions for modifying statements are also a part of this group. For example: as far as I'm concerned (from my point of view). As… as… similes and expressions with «like' are easy to understand. If you see the phrase as dead as a doornail, you Don' T need to know what a doornail is, simply that the whole phrase means «totally dead». But it's important to remember that fixed similes are not «neutral»; they are usually informal or colloquial and often humorous.

Idioms describing people can be divided into two sub-groups:

Idioms connected with positive and negative qualities, for example: His fingers are all thumbs (he's clumsy) or She has iron nerves (she's composed). How people relate to the social norm, for example: I think Mary has a secret to hide (She keeps something from us). I have divided idioms describing feelings or mood into three sub - groups. They are positive and negative feelings, moods and states. For example: to get on someone's nerves (to exasperate), to have a horror of (to disgust), to be as happy as the day is long (extremely content). Physical feelings and states. For example: to burst into tears (to cry). And people's fear or fright. For example: She was scared stiff, (very scared). Next group is idioms connected with problematic situations. The first sub - group is problems and difficulties. For example: a hard luck (failure). The second sub - group is idioms related to situations based on get. For example: to get frustrated (defeat). The third sub - group is changes and staves in situations. For example: to change one's mind (think better of it). At last idioms connected with easing the situation. For example: to do well (recover), to get off lightly (escape). Idioms connected with praise and criticism, for example: to go on at someone (criticize). Idioms connected with using language and communication. Idioms connected with communication problems. For example: to have a row with somebody (to quarrel). Good and bad talk. For example: stream of consciousness (flow of words). Talk in discussions, meetings, etc. For example: to strike up (a conversation) (to start a conversation). Idioms - miscellaneous. Idioms connected with paying, buying and selling. For example: to save up for (put by). Idioms based on names of the parts of the body. For example: to lend an ear (to listen to). Idioms connected with daily routine. For example: to do up (tidy up). There are also single idioms which cannot be included into described above groups. For example to run out (to come to an end) and some special groups of expressions in «Blueprint» such as all along (always), all in all (as a result), all of a sudden (unexpectedly). The last group of idioms is proverbs. For example: «Out of the frying Pan and into the fire» (from one disaster into another).

1.4 The difficulties of translation of slang and idioms from English into Russian

Language is a system of communication that is used by a particular community of speakers. It has literal and figurative meanings. The literal meaning is the direct reference of words or sentences to objects. The figurative sense, however, is different from the literal one in the sense that it is used for giving an imaginative description or a special effect. In this case, the meaning of individual words in an expression has nothing to do in the comprehension of the whole meaning. Such a meaning characterizes notions like metaphors, similes and idioms. Idioms have a great extent use in everyday language, and they are considered as one of the most frequently used means of non-literal language. Their frequent, spontaneous and appropriate use is usually a mark of good English, and an indication of native or near native command of the language. The problem, however, is that despite recent development in the field of translation theory and application, idiomatic expressions still pose a serious challenge for translators and foreign learners.

Translation process comprises at least to stages: understanding the source text and selecting a translation variant. Translation theory tries to explore the transition from the source text to the target text and find out what regular patterns from the basis for translator's action. Translation process is viewed in the framework of human cognitive activity in terms of cognitive translatology based on the concept of translation activity as an interaction of individual cognitive and linguistic structures in the broadest context of individual psychosemiotic characterology. Translation process id marked by conceptual, sociocultural, linguistic, textual and communicative constants. Comparing traditional and cognitive and activity-oriented trends in translation studies, authors point out that a partial research object is replaced by an integral research object. [12, p. 76]

As T.A. Fesenko puts it, a translator is assigned to interpret a source text semantic code, and it is not the verbal forms, but the concepts behind them that are translated. A translator interprets the conceptual program of the source text and authors the conceptual program of the target text. The projected source text is initially processed in the «uncontrolled workspace» with the help of schemata and frames serving as the long-term memory structural framework. At the initial stage of the text perception a general pattern is formed, encompassing the widest range of translator's cognitive resources. Data received during initial processing of the source text allow for the development of a macrostrategy, defining the translation framework and further mental processes that are then carried out in the «controlled workspace». [20, p. 49]

A.G. Minchenkov suggests that understanding the source text and producing the target text are multistep processes operating in shuttle mode. Producing the target text is parallel to understanding the source text. In the process of source text understanding the text units activates the conventional concepts in a translator's consciousness that interact with background and contextual knowledge available to a translator. This interaction results in the actualization of subjective concepts shaping senses in a translator's consciousness. In a number of cases sense is shaped almost spontaneously, but it also often requires quite a long and complex cognitive search performed by a translator. Knowledge of meanings of the source text units and knowledge of the world determine the invariability of source text understanding by different translators. Differences in individual background knowledge and personal perception stipulate the variability of the source text understanding. A translator employs two kinds of search: a cognitive search for sense and a heuristic search for means of verbalization. [13, p. 70]

Once an idiom or fixed expression has been recognized and interpreted correctly, the next step is to decide how to translate it into the target language. The difficulties involved in translating an idiom are totally different from those involved in interpreting it. Here, the question is not wether a given idiom is transparent, opaque, or misleading. An opaque expression may be easier to translate than a transparent one. The main difficulties involved in translating idioms and fixed expressions may be summarized as follows:

An idiom or fixed expression may have no equivalent in the target language. The way a language chooses to express, or not express, various meanings cannot be predicted and only occasionally matches the way another language chooses to express the same meanings. One language may express a given meaning by means of a single word, another may express it by means of a transparent fixed expression, a third may express it by means of an idiom, and so on. It is therefore unrealistic to expect to find equivalent idioms and expressions in the target language as a matter of course.

There are various types of idioms, some more easily recognizable than others. Those which are easily recognizable include expressions which violate truth conditions. They also include expressions which seem ill-formed because they do not follow the grammatical rules of the language.

The first difficulty that a translator comes across is being with an idiomatic expression. Generally speaking, the more difficult an expression is to understand and the less sense it makes in a given context, the more difficult an expression is to understand and the less sense it makes in a given context, the more likely a translator will recognize it as an idiom. Because they do not make sense of interpreted literally, the high-lighted expressions in the following text are easy to recognize as idioms.

The way in which an idiom can be translated into another language depends on many factors. It is not only a question on many factors. It is not only a question of whether an idiom with a similar meaning is available in the target language. Other factors include, for example, the significance of the specific lexical items which constitute the idiom, i.e. whether they are manipulated elsewhere in the source text as well as the appropriateness or inappropriateness of using idiomatic language in a given register in the target language.

The translation of slang has always caused many problems for translators because of its cultural untranslatability. Its translation is a highly specific undertaking requiring creativity to render the effect of the source text in a form appropriate for the target culture and audience.

Russian borrowings and slang, which is not straightforward in most cases. Moreover, it presents the prevailing strategies applied for the translation of slang, i.e. preservation, softening and compensation, and expands on their application in the target text.

The use of slang in fiction has always presented many problems to translators no matter what languages they work with. This is due to the specific features of slang arising not only from its deep cultural specificity, but also from close connection to smaller communities or even subgroups within a particular culture. With respect to such a nature of slang, it is probably impossible to find one universal method for handling slang-related translation problems.

To make such a distinction it is necessary to overview the basic features of slang and borrowings. Although slang is difficult to define, there are several features typical of slang: it is an informal variety of language used and understood by a certain group of people; slang ascribes new meanings to old words and invents completely new words; however, it changes very quickly and its words either die out or may enter the standard language [Fromkin, Rodman, Hyans, 2007, pp. 439-440]. Additionally, name-calling, or nicknames are closely related to slang; moreover, they are usually highly expressive and are often secretly used behind person's back and addressed directly only with the intention to insult [Blok, 2001, p. 156]

Although the given definition enumerates several features typical of slang, the key one is the meaning that slangy words carry, which is closely related to their transience. Thus, the property of being short-lived explains the «colourfulness» of slang which emerges due to constant reinvention of meanings. Inventiveness of slang adds «many new words into the language by recombining old words into new meanings», it also «introduces entirely new words» and «often consists of ascribing entirely new meanings to old words» (Fromkin, Rodman, Hyans, 2007, p. 439). The mentioned sources are two of the three ways how slang items emerge into a language; thus, apart from invention of new words and changing the old ones, borrowing is also considered a source for slang (Andersson and Trudgill, 1990, pp. 82-84). This suggests that slang may be coined in several rather broad ways which results in a constant play with language and its change.

According to Mattiello, changes in meaning are the example of a semantic shift when slang items acquire new meanings or the existing meanings are broadly extended. Moreover, she states that new slang items also emerge through word formation which incorporates such processes as affixation, compounding, conversion, abbreviation (clipping, blending, acronyming), etc. (ibid.). [12, p. 348]

The next process is called conversion and involves a transfer of a word from one part of speech to another. The use of the preposition off as a verb meaning to kill is given as an example. One more method is abbreviation that is divided into clipping, i.e. abbreviating a word to one of its parts; blending, merging parts of words into one word; and acronyming, coining words by taking their initial letters. All of the mentioned techniques result in variety, ingenuity and liveliness of slang since they provide numerous ways of altering and re-inventing words.

Word Formation in the Creation of Slang (Mattiello, 2008)

Explanation of the Example

Affixation: Kiddo = Kid + o; a child [6]

Compounding: Baglady =Bag + lady: a homeless woman, often elderly, who carries her possessions in shopping bags

In contrast to slang, borrowings preserve their original meaning (or a part of it) when they enter another language through a certain language contact, such as bilingualism or translation (Hartmann and James, 1998, p. 16). This may be illustrated by the classification of borrowings as follows:

loanwords - which show the importation of form and meaning with degrees of phonological integration (all, none, or partial); [31]

loanblends - hybrids or combinations of foreign and native forms /…/; [6]

loanshifts - in which a foreign concept (meaning) is represented by a native form (Haugen, 1950, pp. 214-215).

The three types of borrowings explain the method of integrating a foreign word into one or another language by preserving the whole, or at least a part, of the original meaning. A loanword is a type of borrowing which preserves not only the exact meaning of the original, but also the form. Similarly, a loanshift has an original meaning but a different form, whereas in a loanblend at least a part of the meaning is retained.

Despite the fact that culture-bound slang is a highly specific translation problem where each case requires separate consideration, a number of literary sources suggest preservation, softening and compensation as typical strategies that are most common to translate slang.

As slang is closely tied not only to the culture, but often even to a specific subgroup of that culture, it needs special attention as regards its translation. It often requires various adaptations and for this reason, as noticed by Fawcett, softening is a frequent strategy in slang translation as «slang seems to be quite regularly expunged or weakened in translation» (1997, p. 119). Hence, slang is rarely literally translated: it may be rendered using more neutral or general words or even omitted if a translator considers a slang item too culturally specific and alien to the target culture reader as the primary purpose is to produce a naturally sounding target text. In this regard, softening is seen to be «focused on the perception of the target text reader; the language of the target text is formulated in such a way that is sounds natural and comprehensible to the reader» (Butkuviene, Petrulione, 2010, p. 39). If translators come across any item which appears untranslatable due to, for example, linguistic or cultural differences among languages, they may compensate the omission in some other place of the target text where such item seems stylistically appropriate. Furthermore, compensation by merging implies that rather long stylistic features of the source text may be shortened in the target text in order to avoid complicated, foreign-sounding structures which distort the style and is incompatible with the genre. Finally, compensation by splitting denotes an expanded translation of a particular item when the target language does not have an appropriate expression which carries the meaning intended by the source text item.



2. Slang and idioms in Mark Twain's work

2.1 Mark Twain's biography

Christened as Samuel Langhorne Clemens, Mark Twain was born on November 30, 1835 in the small river town of Florida, Missouri, just 200 miles from Indian Territory. The sixth child of John Marshall Clemens and Jane Lampton, Twain lived in Florida, Missouri until the age of four, at which time his family relocated to Hannibal in hopes of improving their living situation.

By lineage, Twain was a Southerner, as both his parents' families hailed from Virginia. The slaveholding community of Hannibal, a river town with a population of 2000, provided a mix of rugged frontier life and the Southern tradition, a lifestyle that influenced Twain's later writings, including the Adventures of Tom Sawyer. Few black slaves actually resided in Hannibal, and the small farms on the delta were no comparison to the typical Southern plantation. In Hannibal, blacks were mostly held as household servants rather than field workers, but were still under the obligations of slavery.

In his youth, Twain was a mischievous boy, the prototype of his character, Tom Sawyer. Though he was plagued by poor health in his early years, by age nine he had already learned to smoke, led a small band of pranksters, and had developed an aversion to school. Twain's formal schooling ended after age 12, because his father passed away in March of that year. He became an apprentice in a printer's shop and then worked under his brother, Orion, at the Hannibal Journal, where he quickly became saturated in the newspaper trade. Rising to the role of sub-editor, Twain indulged in the frontier humor that flourished in journalism at the time: tall tales, satirical pranks, and jokes. [15, p. 290]

However, over the next few years, Twain found himself unable to save any wages and grew restless. He decided to leave Hannibal in June of 1853 and accepted a position in St. Louis. Soon afterwards, rather than settling in St. Louis, Twain proceeded to travel back and forth between New York, Philadelphia, Washington, and Iowa, working as a journalist. After his wanderings, Twain ultimately switched professions, realizing an old boyhood dream of becoming a river pilot.

Under the apprenticeship of Horace Bixby, pilot of the Paul Jones, Mark Twain became a licensed river pilot at the age of 24. Earning a high salary navigating the river waters, Twain was entertained by his work, and enjoyed his traveling lifestyle. In 1861, with the beginning of the Civil War, Twain's piloting days came to an end.

After returning home to Hannibal, Twain learned that military companies were being organized to assist Governor Jackson, and he enlisted as a Confederate soldier. Within a short period, he abandoned the cause, deserted the military, and along with thousands of other men avoiding the draft, moved West. On his way to Nevada, twelve years after the Gold Rush, Twain's primary intentions were to strike it rich mining for silver and gold. After realizing the impossibility of this dream, Twain once again picked up his pen and began to write. [16]

Twain joined the staff of the Virginia City Territorial Enterprise, and became an established reporter/humorist. In 1863, he adopted the pseudonym Mark Twain, derived from a river pilot term describing safe navigating conditions. In 1869 he published his first book of travel letters entitled Innocents Abroad. The book was criticized widely and discouraged Twain from pursuing a literary career. In the years that followed, Twain published various articles, made lecture circuits, and relocated between San Francisco, New York, and Missouri. During this time he also met Olivia Langdon, whom he married on February 2, 1870. In November of the same year, their first son, Langdon Clemens, was born prematurely.

The Clemens family quickly fell into debt. However, when over 67,000 copies of Innocents Abroad sold within its first year, the American Publishing Company asked Twain for another book. Upon Olivia's request, the couple moved to the domicile town of Hartford, Connecticut, where Twain composed Roughing It, which documented the post-Gold Rush mining epoch and was published in 1872.

In March of 1872, Twain's daughter Susan Olivia was born, and the family appeared prosperous. Unfortunately, Langdon soon came down with Diphtheria and died. Twain was torn apart by his son's death, and blamed himself. Moreover, Roughing It was only mildly successful, which added to the family's hardships.

After traveling to Europe for a lecture series, Twain experienced a turning point in his career. Twain's newest novel, The Gilded Age, written in collaboration with Charles Dudley Warner, was published in 1873. The novel is about the 1800s era of corruption and exploitation at the expense of public welfare. The Gilded Age was Twain's first extended work of fiction and marked him in the literary world as an author rather than a journalist. [17, p. 587]

After the broad success of The Gilded Age, Twain began a period of concentrated writing. In 1880, his third daughter, Jean, was born. By the time Twain reached age fifty, he was already considered a successful writer and businessman. His popularity sky-rocketed with the publications of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), The Prince and the Pauper (1882), and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885). By 1885, Twain was considered one the greatest character writers in the literary community.

Twain died on April 21, 1910, having survived his children Langdon, Susan and Jean as well as his wife, Olivia. In his lifetime, he became a distinguished member of the literati, and was honored by Yale, the University of Missouri, and Oxford with literary degrees. With his death, many volumes of his letters, articles, and fables were published, including: The Letters of Quintas Curtius Snodgrass (1946); Simon Wheeler, Detective (1963); The Works of Mark Twain: What is Man? and Other Philosophical Writings (1973); and Mark Twain's Notebooks and Journals (1975-79). Perhaps more than any other classic American writer, Mark Twain is seen as a phenomenal author, but also as a personality that defined an era.



2.2 Slang and idioms in Mark Twain's work

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, written by Mark Twain in 1876, is about twelve-year-old Tom Sawyer living the small-town life - and getting into a lot of trouble with his friends - in antebellum (pre-Civil War) Missouri. The book, loosely based on Twain's childhood exploits, has become a classic portrait of mischievous youth - well, in America anyway. As is the case with many now-classic books, Tom Sawyer was not well-acclaimed upon its initial release; and even now Twain's thicker, weightier sequel-of-sorts, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, which borrows its setting and characters from Tom Sawyer, is considered his masterpiece.

Still, Huck himself would be the first to tell you what a great book Tom Sawyer is. Huck Finn opens The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by making a plug for Tom Sawyer:

«YOU don't know about me without you have read a book by the name of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer; but that ain't no matter. That book was made by Mr. Mark Twain, and he told the truth, mainly. There was things which he stretched, but mainly he told the truth. That is nothing.» (Huckleberry Finn 1.1)

Twain attempted to write a bunch of Tom Sawyer adventures, including Tom Sawyer Abroad (1894) and Tom Sawyer, Detective (1894), along with the unfinished Huck and Tom Among the Indians, Schoolhouse Hill, and Tom Sawyer's Conspiracy. Sure, a lot of the particulars of Tom's life - whitewashing, marble-playing, spelunking - may not be familiar to the average American anymore, but there's something about Tom, something about his spirit and the way Mark Twain renders it in prose, that's remained relevant for all these years. Heck, you don't see rock bands writing about The Portrait of a Lady. [18, p. 270]

In 1995 a film called Tom and Huck was released, starring teen heartthrobs Jonathan Taylor Thomas and Brad Renfro. This movie, based on Mark Twain's Adventures of Tom Sawyer.

Analyse of idioms and expressions in Mark Twain's book «The adventures of Tom Sawyer».

Examples:

1) English: She seldom or never looked THROUGH them for so small a thing as a boy; they were her state pair, the pride of her heart, and were built for «style,» not service - she could have seen through a pair of stove-lids just as well. [18, p. 3] Not this (Chapter 1, page 3)

Russian: Она очень редко, почти никогда не глядела сквозь очки на такую мелочь, как мальчишка; это были парадные очки, ее гордость, приобретенные для красоты, а не для пользы, и что-нибудь разглядеть сквозь них ей было так же трудно, как сквозь пару печных заслонок. [19, c. 5]

Analysis: There are idioms in this sentence. «State pair» - in this sentence means favourite glasses, which aunt Polly used to wear only when she went out.

…not service-she could have seen through a pair of stove-lids just as well, meaning that aunt Polly could see nothing in these glasses, therefore they were useless.

2) English: «Well, I lay if I get hold of you I'll -» [18, p. 4]

Russian: Ну погоди, дай только до тебя добраться… [19, c. 6]

Analysis: This expression in following context is used as a threat. Aunt Polly is trying to say that she will punish Tom, when she will find him.

3) English: «I never did see the beat of that boy!» [18, p. 5]

Russian: Что за ребенок, в жизни такого не видывала! [19, c. 7]

Analysis: Beat is used here in the competitive sense. Bill and John were in a race, Bill won, Bill beat John. So I understand the sentence to mean something like, that boy's behaviour is in some way or other the most extreme I have ever seen. In this case, probably: I never did see a boy who was more infuriating than Tom! Translating a little: Tom is the most infuriating boy I have ever seen!

4) English: There was a slight noise behind her and she turned just in time to seize a small boy by the slack of his roundabout and arrest his flight. [18, p. 7]

Russian: За ее спиной послышался легкий шорох, и она оглянулась - как раз вовремя, чтобы ухватить мальчишку, прежде чем он прошмыгнул в дверь. [19, 11]

Analysis: This sentence is very difficult to translate literally, because it wouldn't make a sense. The word roundabout - deviating from a straight course; «a scenic but devious route»; «a long and circuitous journey by train and boat»; «a roundabout route avoided rush-hour traffic» indirect - not direct in spatial dimension; not leading by a straight line or course to a destination; «sometimes taking an indirect path saves time»; «you must take an indirect course in sailing»

slack of - to decrease in activity or intensity.

Arrest his flight-means not to let him to go away.

As you can notice analyzing the single words in this sentence doen't make any sense, so we should try to see the sense in the whole sentence. This time, she hears a soft rustle and turns around just in time to catch Tom as he was trying to sneak behind her and make his escape.

5) English: «Nothing! Look at your hands. And look at your mouth. What IS that truck?» [18, p. 9]

Russian: Ничего? Посмотри, в чем у тебя руки? И рот тоже. Это что такое? [19, c. 12]

Analysis: «Truck» in this use is something unidentified but obviously there. Tom had been eating forbidden jam. Aunt Polly hadn't yet realized what it was when she asked the question, but she could tell he had something in his mouth that wasn't supposed to be there!

6) English: Forty times I've said if you didn't let that jam alone I'd skin you. Hand me that switch.» [18, p. 11]

Russian: Сорок раз я тебе говорила: не смей трогать варенье - выдеру! Подай сюда розгу. [19, c. 13]

Analysis: A switch is a long, thin length of branch used to hit kids for acting up (like a spanking, but much worse). Parents make the kid go get the switch from a tree, and if they returned with a small switch, they would be hit more times. The hits would sting and leave red lines where the thin branch lashed across the skin. Tom, however, knew this was coming, and using hit cunning, he creates a diversion to escape the punishment altogether.

7) English: The switch hovered in the air - the peril was desperate - [18, p. 13]

Russian: Розга засвистела в воздухе, - казалось, беды не миновать. [19, c. 16]

Analysis: Aunt Polly was going to hit Tom at this moment and there were no ways to escape the trouble.

8) English: «Hang the boy, can't I never learn anything? [18, p. 16]

Russian: Вот и поди с ним! Неужели я так ничему и не научусь? [19, c. 19]

Analysis: «hang the boy» an expression, which shouldn't be understood word by word. In this sentence aunt Polly is trying to say that she couldn't do anything with Tom.

9) English: But old fools is the biggest fools there is. [18, p. 19]

Russian: Но нет хуже дурака, чем старый дурак. [19, c. 21]

Analysis: An American saying, which means that it is easier to fool old people than young people.

10) English: Can't learn an old dog new tricks, as the saying is. [18, p. 22]

Russian: Недаром говорится: «Старую собаку не выучишь новым фокусам». [19, c. 24]

Analysis: This is an old proverb, which means that it is difficult to make someone change the way they do something when they have been doing it the same way for a long time.

11) English: But my goodness, he never plays them alike, two days, and how is a body to know what's coming? He 'pears to know just how long he can torment me before I get my dander up, and he knows if he can make out to put me off for a minute or make me laugh, it's all down again and I can't hit him a lick. [18, p. 24]

Russian: Но ведь, господи ты боже мой, он каждый день что-нибудь да придумает, где же тут угадать. И как будто знает, сколько времени можно меня изводить; знает, что стоит ему меня рассмешить или хоть на минуту сбить с толку, у меня уж и руки опускаются, я даже шлепнуть его не могу. [19, c. 27]

Analysis: This sentence is very difficult to understand and we can't just translate it word by word. We have to look over the context. This sentence probably means: Tom is constantly surprising Aunt Polly with his mischief, and she admits that he often outsmarts her. She is completely aware of Tom's apparent control over her. He knows her exact limits and he knows how to avoid getting spanked or punished one way or another.

12) English: Spare the rod and spile the child, as the Good Book says. [18, p. 34]

Russian: Ведь сказано в Писании: кто щадит младенца, тот губит его. [19, c. 37]

Analysis: The phrase «spare the rod, spoil the child» comes from Proverbs 13:24, «He who spares the rod hates his son, but he who loves him is careful to discipline him.» The Lord uses discipline to reveal our sin to us. This is also how parents reveal the truth of our need for a Savior to their children. When a child does not feel the consequence of his sin, he will not understand that sin requires punishment. The Lord provides a way to salvation and forgiveness through Jesus, but that means little to those who do not see their sin.

13) English: He's full of the Old Scratch, but laws-a-me! he's my own dead sister's boy, poor thing, and I ain't got the heart to lash him, somehow. [18, p. 38]

Russian: Он сущий чертенок, знаю, но ведь он, бедняжка, сын моей покойной сестры, у меня как-то духу не хватает наказывать его. [19, c. 41]

Analysis: Old Scratch, like Old Nick, is a nickname for the devil. In the last century it was widely used in the eastern United States, especially in New England, as is evident from the Devil's name for himself in the Stephen Vincent Benйt short story «The Devil and Daniel Webster.» Now the term has been regionalized to the South. Old Scratch is attested in the Oxford English Dictionary from the 18th century onward in Great Britain as a colloquialism: «He'd have pitched me to Old Scratch» (Anthony Trollope, 1858). The source of the name is probably the Old Norse word skratte, meaning «a wizard, goblin, monster, or devil.»

14) English: Well-a-well, man that is born of woman is of few days and full of trouble, as the Scripture says, and I reckon it's so. [18, p. 42]

Russian: Недаром ведь сказано в Писании: век человеческий краток и полон скорбей; думаю, что это правда. [19, c. 45]

Analysis: There is a good explanation of this expression in Bible. Every man of Adam's fallen race is short-lived. All his show of beauty, happiness, and splendour falls before the stroke of sickness or death, as the flower before the scythe; or passes away like the shadow. How is it possible for a man's conduct to be sinless, when his heart is by nature unclean? Here is a clear proof that Job understood and believed the doctrine of original sin.

15) English: He'll play hookey this evening, I'll just be obleeged to make him work, tomorrow, to punish him. [18, p. 46]

Russian: Нынче он отлынивает от школы; придется мне завтра наказать его - засажу за работу. [19, c. 49]

Analysis: The phrase playing hooky generally refers to a person who skips school or work without a valid excuse, such as illness or an emergency. It may refer to an adult or child. When a school-aged child is caught playing hooky repeatedly, he may be referred to as a truant. Other phrases for missing school or work without an acceptable excuse are absent without leave and playing hooky-crooky. Although the origin of the term «playing hooky» is not exactly known, there is speculation as to how the phrase became known. The phrase may have been derived from a slang expression known as hooking, which means to rob or take something without permission. Someone who is playing hooky, therefore, is thought to be taking a day off without permission. Adults and children often play hooky for various reasons. Some want to ditch class or work to attend to some other business or leisure activity. When a person decides to play hooky, he may feign illness to stay home or go elsewhere.

16) English: «Tom, it was middling warm in school, warn't it?» [18, p. 50]

Russian: Том, в школе было не очень жарко? [19, c. 52]

Analysis: Usually people nowadays don't say middling warm, this probably means something average between warm and cold.

17) English: «Powerful warm, warn't it?» [18, p. 53]

Russian: А может быть, очень жарко? [19, c. 55]

Analysis: Mark Twain used this expression powerful warm to describe the hot weather.

18) English: And it flattered her to reflect that she had discovered that the shirt was dry without anybody knowing that that was what she had in her mind. But in spite of her, Tom knew where the wind lay, now. [18, p. 55]

Russian: Ей приятно было думать, что она сумела проверить, сухая ли у Тома рубашка, так, что никто не понял, к чему она клонит. Однако Том сразу почуял, куда ветер дует, и предупредил следующий ход: [19, c. 57]

Analysis: The expression to know where the wind lay, means that a person knows what is going to happen in definite situation. Tom understood what aunt Polly was trying to find out.

19) English: «Siddy, I'll lick you for that.» [18, p. 60]

Russian: Я это тебе припомню, Сидди! [19, c. 62]

Analysis: Tom meant to revenge Sid for his words.

20) English: But I bet you I'll lam Sid for that. [18, p. 63]

Russian: Ну и отлуплю же я Сида. [19, c. 65]

Analysis: To lam a common slang which means a punishment, Tom was meaning to beat him very hard. It was a usual punishment for boys who were Tom's age.

21) English: He had a citified air about him that ate into Tom's vitals. [18, p. 65]

Russian: И вообще вид у него был столичный, чего Том никак не мог стерпеть. [19, c. 68]

Analysis: This old word «vitals» means a person's inner being, feelings, soul and heart. It's everything that is «vital» to a human being. When something «eats into» your vitals, it bothers you so much that you are very troubled. It gnaws at you. It's like something boring into you. Meaning it got Tom's vitals go up. Meaning this guy and his appearance annoyed, and pissed Tom off, making his anger go up. His vitals (blood pressure and heart beat per minute) would go up, due to his irritability and disguist and anger at this guy.

22) English: Oh, you think you're mighty smart, DON'T you? [18, p. 68]

Russian: Подумаешь, какой выискался! [19, c. 69]

Analysis: Tom was meaning that the unknown boy was irritating him and therefore he was the opposite of smart. Tom thought that the well dressed boy was very silly.

23) English: I dare you to knock it off - and anybody that'll take a dare will suck eggs.» [18, p. 71]

Russian: Попробуй сбей - тогда узнаешь. [19, c. 73]

Analysis: There are two idioms in this sentence. To knock if off an American slang this is used nowadays, too. The meaning of the slang is to stop, people say this idiom, when they want somebody stop, and quit doing something. The other slang is - to suck eggs an English-language saying meaning that a person is giving advice to someone else about a subject that they already know about (and probably more than the first person).

24) Enlgish: I'll tell my big brother on you, and he can thrash you with his little finger, and I'll make him do it, too.» [18, p. 75]

Russian: Вот скажу моему старшему брату, чтоб он тебе задал как следует, так он тебя одним мизинцем поборет. [19, 77]

Analysis: The word thrash is a slang, which means to beat or to hurt. Tom wanted to say that his brother will beat the unknown boy, and it will be very easy to him.

25) English: «I dare you to step over that, and I'll lick you till you can't stand up. Anybody that'll take a dare will steal sheep.» [18, p. 77]

Russian: Только перешагни эту черту, я тебя как отлуплю, что своих не узнаешь. Попробуй только, не обрадуешься. [19, c. 79]

Analysis: I'd guess that 'will steal sheep' means 'is sure to commit a serious crime one day and get hanged for it', or maybe 'is the sort of person who commits a serious crime and gets hanged for it'. There is a common expression 'one might as well be hanged for a sheep as for a lamb'. It seems to fit the context here that Tom threatens serious consequences if the other boy crosses the line.

26) English: «Don't you crowd me now; you better look out.» [18, p. 80]

Russian: Ты не толкайся, а то как дам! [19, c. 82]

Analysis: To «crowd» someone is to take up too much of their personal space. That could mean «Do not get too close to me». «Do not invade my personal space.»

27) English: «By jingo! for two cents I WILL do it.» [18, p. 82]

Russian: Давай два цента, отлуплю. [19, c. 84]

Analysis: By jingo is an exclamation used to emphasize the truth or importance of a foregoing statement, or to express astonishment, approval, etc.

28) English: «Holler 'nuff [18, p. 84]

Russian: Проси пощады! [19, c. 86]

Analysis: This slang was popular many years ago, the meaning was to ask for mercy!

29) English: «Oh, I dasn't, Mars Tom. Ole missis she'd take an' tar de head off'n me. 'Deed she would.» [18, p. 90]

Russian: Ой, боюсь, мистер Том. Старая хозяйка мне за это голову оторвет. Ей-богу, оторвет. [19, c. 92]

Analysis: The «Adventures of Tom Sawyer» was written in those times when African - american people didn't have many rights and used to work for white people. Jim was a little African American boy. He used to speak not grammatically right. Mark Twain showed us the situation in those times, when black children couldn't go to school and they didn't get educated. Jim's expression she'd take an' tar de head of'n me meant that if he wouldn't do what aunt Polly told him to do she will tear off his head. Of course, Jim didn't mean that aunt Polly will tear off his head literally, but he wanted to explain Tom that he will get punished for not obeying aunt Polly.

30) English: I'll give you a marvel. I'll give you a white alley!» [18, p. 93]

Russian: Джим, я тебе шарик подарю! Я тебе подарю белый с мраморными жилками! [19, c. 95]

Analysis: An alley is a fine marble used as the shooter in playing marbles.

31) English: Sighing, he dipped his brush and passed it along the topmost plank; repeated the operation; did it again; compared the insignificant whitewashed streak with the far-reaching continent of unwhitewashed fence, and sat down on a tree-box discouraged. [18, p. 95]

Russian: Вздыхая, он окунул кисть в ведро и провел ею по верхней доске забора, повторил эту операцию, проделал ее снова, сравнил ничтожную выбеленную полоску с необозримым материком некрашеного забора и уселся на загородку под дерево в полном унынии. [19, c. 97]

Analysis: Whitewash a mixture of lime, whiting, size, water, etc., for whitening walls and other surfaces. At the time of Tom Sawyer the whitewash was widely used instead of paints.

32) English: «White alley, Jim! And it's a bully taw.» [18, p. 97]

Russian: Белый мраморный, Джим! Это тебе не пустяки! [19, c. 99]

Analysis: A bully taw is a big shooting marble. It is used to shoot with when playing the game of marbles. It has many features that are used to make it colourful and is made from glass or steel.

33) English: Tom went on whitewashing - paid no attention to the steamboat. Ben stared a moment and then said: «Hi-YI! YOU'RE up a stump, ain't you!» [18, p. 100]

Russian: Том по-прежнему белил забор, не обращая на пароход никакого внимания. Бен уставился на него и сказал: - Ага, попался, взяли на причал! [19, c. 101]

Analysis: To be up a stump is the same as To be up a tree, which is to say you have a big or unsolvable problem. Ben was glad to see Tom working, and wanted to joke at him, paying attention at the fact that he was having a long holiday and Tom had to work.

34) English: «No - is that so? Oh come, now - lemme just try. Only just a little - I'd let YOU, if you was me, Tom.» [18, p. 101]

Russian: Да что ты? Слушай, пусти хоть попробовать, хоть чутьчуть. Том, я бы тебя пустил, если б ты был на моем месте. [19, c. 102]

Analysis: The word lemme is a short variant of let me. Mark Twain tried to show how boys in Tom Sawyer's times used to talk. It was cool to talk such way.

35) English: «Oh, shucks, I'll be just as careful. Now lemme try. Say - I'll give you the core of my apple.» [18, p. 102]

Russian: Да что ты, Том, я же буду стараться. Ну пусти, я попробую. Слушай, я тебе дам серединку от яблока. [19, c. 103]

Analysis: Shucks is used to express mild disappointment, disgust, or annoyance.! There is no the accurate translation of this word in Russian language. Ben said shucks because he really wanted to try to whitewash the fence, but Tom pretended that he doesn't want to share such an interesting job.

36) English: Big Missouri worked and sweated in the sun, the retired artist sat on a barrel in the shade close by, dangled his legs, munched his apple, and planned the slaughter of more innocents. [18, p. 103]

Russian: И пока бывший пароход «Большая Миссури» трудился в поте лица на солнцепеке, удалившийся от дел художник, сидя в тени на бочонке, болтал ногами, жевал яблоко и обдумывал дальнейший план избиения младенцев. [19, c. 104]

Analysis: If you look for this word «slaughter» in any dictionary you would find the following definition: The killing of a large number of people; a massacre. But Mark Twain didn't mean that Tom was going to kill somebody. The word is used to describe that Tom just wanted to fool other boys, to use boys to do his job.

37) English: And while she closed with a happy Scriptural flourish, he «hooked» a doughnut. [18, p. 104]

Russian: И пока она заканчивала свою речь очень кстати подвернувшимся текстом из Писания, Том успел стянуть у нее за спиной пряник. [19, c. 105]

Analysis: To hook is a slang which means to take something without the permission. Tom took a doughnut, while aunt Polly didn't pay attention at him.

38) English: These two great commanders did not condescend to fight in person - that being better suited to the still smaller fry - but sat together on an eminence and conducted the field operations by orders delivered through aides-de-camp. [18, p. 106]

Russian: Оба великих полководца не унижались до того, чтобы сражаться самим, - это больше подходило всякой мелюзге, - они сидели вместе на возвышении и руководили военными действиями, рассылая приказы через адъютантов. [19, c. 108] Analysis: This sentence is difficult to understand, because it was written in a special style, which is very charachteristic for Mark Twain. The meaning of the sentence is that two boys Tom and Joe Harper didn't fight themselves, they made other little boys to fight, they liked to sit on an eminence and give orders to little boys-their soldiers.

39) English: He worshipped this new angel with furtive eye, till he saw that she had discovered him; then he pretended he did not know she was present, and began to «show off» in all sorts of absurd boyish ways, in order to win her admiration. [18, p. 110]

Russian: Он поклонялся новому ангелу издали, пока не увидел, что она его заметила; тогда он притворился, будто не видит, что она здесь, и начал ломаться на разные лады, как это принято у мальчишек, стараясь ей понравиться и вызвать ее восхищение. [19, c. 112]

Analysis: Describing somebody as a show-off carries an implicit endorsement of their capability: someone can only «show off» if they actually have something to show. An individual who seeks attention that they are not perceived to deserve is usually described much more dismissively as an attention-seeker or loudmouth. Tom wanted to pay the girl's attention at him.

Boyish means everything what is characteristic for boys in look, behavior, and attitude. Tom was acting just like other boys used to do.

40) English: He said to himself that he would not speak a word, even when his aunt came in, but would sit perfectly still till she asked who did the mischief; and then he would tell, and there would be nothing so good in the world as to see that pet model «catch it.» [18, p. 115]

Russian: Том был в восторге. В таком восторге, что даже придержал язык и смолчал. Он решил, что не скажет ни слова, даже когда войдет тетя Полли, а будет сидеть смирно, пока она не спросит, кто это сделал. Вот тогда он скажет и полюбуется, как влетит «любимчику», - ничего не может быть приятнее! [19, c. 117]

Analysis: Mark Twain used the expression pet model to Sid, to show that aunt Polly liked him more than Tom, because he was a good boy and always listened to her and of course it would be a surprise for her that her favourite nephew broke the sugar bowl. The expression «catch it» means that aunt Polly should've see what Sid had done. She will see the broken sugar bowl and figure out what happened.

41) English: «Hold on, now, what 'er you belting ME for? - Sid broke it!» [18, p. 120]

Russian: Да погодите же, за что вы меня лупите? Это Сид разбил! [19, c. 122]

Analysis: What'er you belting me for? Means in other words why are you beating me. Tom was surprised why did aunt Polly beat him.

42) English: Well, you didn't get a lick amiss, I reckon. You been into some other audacious mischief when I wasn't around, like enough.» [18, p. 124]

Russian: Гм! Ну, я думаю, тебе все же не зря влетело! Уж наверно, ты чего-нибудь еще натворил, пока меня тут не было. [19, c. 126]

Analysis: The freedictionary.com gives the following definition of the slang amiss: out of the right or proper course, order, or condition; wrongly: to speak amiss. Take amiss, to be mistakenly offended at or resentful of; misunderstand. Aunt Polly meant that Tom didn't get punished unfairly. The audacious mischief means that Tom was expected to do something bad all the time.

43) English: Then Tom girded up his loins, so to speak, and went to work to «get his verses. [18, p. 126]