Lingual-Stylistic Peculiarities of Poetic Works of English Romanticism

“Darkness” - Byron wrote this poem in July-August 1816. It is composed in a style of an apocalyptic vision dealing with degeneration of the human race and total destruction of the world.

It was greatly influenced by 2 events that occurred at that time - a mysterious prognosis made by an Italian astronomer who proclaimed that sun would burn itself that year and darkness would fall on earth, marking the end of the world; and sudden eclipse that really occurred but as a result of a sudden eruption of a volcano in Indonesia. The poet was at that time in state of depression (he left his family and England for the last time) and his cynic attitude towards human civilization and it's future reached the highest peak. All this stuff along with the tendency to implement allusions from Bible made the poem sound especially terrifying (14, 115).

First it is essential to discuss the rhythm of the poem under analysis. Byron employs several poetic techniques to unify "Darkness" and to create a sense, of time passing away. The poem's blank verse creates the feeling of time beating wildly, and then slowing to a stop when world's destruction is completed. Time, after this smooth, regular beat, soon changes to a faster, different pace. As men run wildly to preserve light and their lives, time runs like a clock gone wild. Byron doesn't use complex stylistic devices to describe the scene. Everything happens unbelievably fast, and as rapidly as Byron envisioned it. But closer to the end pace of the poem slows down giving us a feeling of the calm after the storm.

One should also pay attention to the fact that there are only 6 sentences throughout the entire poem. Byron allows no time to pause to rest once the narration begins. It creates feeling of despair and hopelessness intensified by the use words relating to destruction, chaos and death.

In the poem the author uses alliteration to compensate the absence of rhymed lines. This can be seen in the following lines:

A fearful hope was all the world contain'd;

Forests were set on fire--but hour by hour

They fell and faded--and the crackling trunks

Extinguish'd with a crash--and all was black.(14,144)

It also gives emphasis to words - beasts are described as "tame and tremulous”, Death as "immediate and inglorious".

Then it should be also mentioned that there are some sets of images. First, movement downwards, all the time descending, like into the abyss - men burn the palaces and huts down, then birds flutter on the ground, masts are falling, and then “the silent depths” - everything moves down in the direction of hell.

Then we observe the direction from light to darkness, comparison of men with animals, and the whole desperation and anguish that fill the narration and impress in that way that one can imagine the annihilation of the humanity on his/her own. This calls to mind the words of Jesus in the Gospels, where those who are cast away from God are cast “into outer darkness, where there is weeping and gnashing of teeth” (Matthew 8:11-12). The biblical allusion increases the apocalyptic tone of the poem, making this darkness a curse of Biblical proportions.

Deliberate morphemic repetition of functional suffixes -less and -ing support the idea of despair and emphasize the process of dying. Another thing to add is the description of mental and moral state of men - they lost their faith, but still express hope in that “selfish prayer for light”. They degenerated to the lowest limit, but it's not the only thing that unites humanity.

As Byron envisions the very end of the human world, famine has killed all but two men, “and they were enemies”. These last two survivors of a dead world meet by accident at a place where other horrors have been perpetrated: “a mass of holy things / For an unholy usage” (here we observe antithesis, that is seen throughout the human history). The blasphemers, who sacrificed morality for a little temporary safety, are now dead. In the small flames the two enemies cooperate, not thinking of themselves as enemies. But when they manage to stoke the flames they see one another's faces in horror and die. The men die only able to see the “fiend” (could mean the Devil and then another allusion to the Bible) written upon each other's brow by famine .They see the utter horror of the end and can no longer take it.

Frequent use of antonomasia - Death, War, Darkness also makes us remind the New Testament and the similar acts done by the supernatural forces used as God's servants(the 4 Horsemen or 7 Angels if to recall a few of them).

Death and Darkness are represented as the great levelers, as houses of the rich and poor are equally burnt down and all men gathered together in their last hope. Still the bitter sarcasm is heard in the lines when the War that has stopped because of the supernatural disaster, however rages on; but here it turns from political warfare to fighting and killing out of a desire to survive. Here's another moral from Bible as it is said that nothing but Death will teach the human race, what inevitably comes as the result in the poem.

“Adonais” - is an elegy written in memory of one of the greatest Romantics and a close friend of Shelley, John Keats. The whole poem is a an outstanding allusion to the Ancient Greek mythology, dealing in some sense with the motifs from Christianity. Strictly speaking, Keats was the first to promote the idea of relating to Ancient Greek times as ideal times for humans (poets in particular). This could be one of the points why Shelley chose such an exclusive form of praising his friend who died. The other is that Christian theme was always close to Shelley, as well as to Byron, despite their mutual hatred towards the Church. In “Adonais” Shelley sees Jesus Christ in Greek disguise, as we feel from the tone of the poem, the main hero is praised as a martyr. Yet, in his poetry, he often represents the poet as a Christ-like figure and thus sets the poet up as a secular replacement for Christ. Martyred by society and conventional values, the Christ figure is resurrected by the power of nature and his own imagination and spreads his prophetic visions over the earth. Shelley further separates his Christ figures from traditional Christian values in “Adonais”, in which he compares the same character to Christ, as well as Cain, whom the Bible portrays as the world's first murderer. For Shelley, Christ and Cain are both outcasts and rebels, like romantic poets and like himself.

It is also interesting to dwell upon the name of the poem and the main hero himself. Adonais is a conversion made up by means of combining two versions of one name of a Deity - Adonis and Adonai. Adonis was a Phrygian god of dying and reviving nature; he emanated on the earth and died suddenly, likening the fate of Christ, his cult became a part of Greek-Roman religious system and influenced the further Christian dogmatism. Adonai is a form of address to the Almighty God originally taken from Judaism and then also transferred to the Christian religion. So the peculiarities of different systems were synthesized here in one notion and the author created a somewhat new mysterious and super powerful image.

Concerning the type of verse - Shelley chose the specific Spenser verse (so admired by Byron, by the way). It is the pastoral elegy, so specific for Greek and Roman poetry (so we see Lucan, mentioned in the poem). The difference between ancient and Shelly's poem lies in the fact that in “Adonais” Shelley accuses a person who, to his viewpoint, was the real cause of poet's death - literary critic. Next thing is the obvious prediction of own Shelley's death - he described with admiration a part of Roman cemetery, and told that he would follow his friend to the Otherworld. Indeed, he died just in two years and was buried in the place he described.

Beyond the obvious parallel that both were taken at a young age, Shelley uses this poem to make readers hold onto him in memory and rejoice in his virtual resurrection by reading his words.

As we apparently see from the narration, Shelley blames Keats' death on literary criticism that was recently published (he was unaware that Keats was suffering from tuberculosis). He scorns the weakness and cowardice of the critic compared with the poet. The poet wonders why Adonis' mother (“Urania”) was not able to do more to save her beloved son, and he summons all spirits, living and dead, to join him in his mourning(so he mentions Byron “Pilgrim of Eternity”, Thomas Moore - “sweetest lyrist”, Chatterton, Sydney - calling them by name). Shelley argues that Keats' had great potential as a poet and is perhaps the “loveliest and the last” great spirit of the Romantic period.

Stanzas eight and nine continue with Shelley's beckoning of mourners. Stanza ten changes to dialogue: his mother, Urania, holds the corpse of her young poet son and realizes that some “dream has loosened from his brain” (19, 134).That is, something about his mind is not dead although his body may be dead. The body is visited by a series of Greek Goddesses, who take three or four stanzas to prepare the corpse for the afterlife; Keats deserves it.

Even nature is mourning the loss, where things like the ocean, winds, and echoes (here we observe a great example of antonomasia) are stopping to pay their respects. As the seasons come and go, the mourned is feeling no better. By stanza twenty, the hero finally perceives a separation between the corpse and the spirit, one going to fertilize new life in nature, the other persisting to inspire aesthetic beauty. This is when Urania awakens from her own dejected sleep and takes flight across the land, taunting death to “meet her” but realizing she is “chained to time” and cannot be with her beloved son, so she is again left feeling hopeless and dejected. She acknowledges her son's “defenselessness” against the “herded wolves” of mankind but then compares him to Apollo, suggesting he will have more inspiration in death than he would have in life (1, 217).

The poet then describes the death of Keats with scorn for those he thinks is responsible. Keats visits his mother as a ghost whom she does not recognize. The author calls for Keats to be remembered for his work and not the age of his death, and Shelley takes an unusual religious tone as he places Keats as a soul in the heavens, looking down upon earth. Shelley contends that Keats, in death, is more “alive” than the common man will ever be, and he can now exist peacefully, safe from the evils of men and their criticisms.

In stanza forty-one, the poem takes a major shift. The narrator begins to rejoice, becoming aware that the young Adonis is alive (in spirit) and will live on forever. We see the Romantic notion that he is now “one with nature,” and just as other young poets who have died (Shelley lists them), their spirits all live on in the inspiration we draw from their work and short lives. Even so, Keats is a head above the rest. Completely turning on his original position, the speaker now calls upon anyone who mourns for Adonis as a “wretch,” arguing that his spirit is immortal, making him as permanent as the great city of Rome. Shelley ends the poem wondering about his own fate, when he will die, and if he will be mourned and remembered with such respect as he is giving Keats (1, 145).

The poem is overloaded with stylistic devices that are aimed to express deep sorrow for Adonais, splendor of his rebirth and ultimate doom that awaits everyone, the author in particular. Mentioning the deliberate use of antonomasia along with capitalization which is so common for all the Romantic poets (i.e. Light, Beauty, Benediction, Curse, Love, Time, Hour etc.) one should notice that those images are not only personified, they act as characters too and mourn Adonais along with real human beings. Epithets are also numerous, concerning only Adonais himself - young Dawn, a pardlike Spirit, a Power, a Love, Vesper etc. Among others - trembling throng, revolving year, eclipsing Curse, sustaining Love, cold mortality, kingless sphere, dazzling immortality, unascended majesty, mourning mind. We can observe several important cases of other lexical stylistic devices, such as metaphor (soft sky smiles, ages, empires, religions lie buried), metonymy (Light whose smile shines, bones of Desolation's nakedness), simily (Rome as Paradise, grave, wilderness; time feeds a slow fire, soul like flame, life like a dome of many colored glass), comparison (wrecks like shattered mountains, , Adonais like a star). Among syntactical stylistic devices we may enumerate frequent use of repletions (Adonais died, weep for Adonais; why, why, why; up to Rome etc), suspense and asyndeton. Although the whole poem is an immense allusion we must mark some cases inside of it - spirit's bark, allusion to Charon's ferry; sphere skies , allusion to the movement of Gnosticism, kingly Death has his court, allusion to Hades, Greek God of Underworld.

Taken as a whole, then, “Adonais” expresses the many stages of grieving, mourning, with deep lamentation being soon replaced with rejoice of Adonais revival. Shelley chooses allusion and allegory going back to ancient myth in order to express his sorrow for the loss of his friend and to implore the rest of the world to never forget the work of the young bard. The use of ancient mythology suggests that Shelley sees Keats as a truly majestic figure, as the rest of the poem demonstrates.

“A Fact and Imagination” - a poem was written in form of a vision where truth is mixed with an unreal supposition that, however, is inclined to prove the central theme. We evidently observe that the poem consists of 2 parts, one spoken by King Canute, the other by King Alfred. Both of them were real historical figures that from different times, so the author “intrudes” into the narration to bind both parts. The main aim of the poet was to show the people that all material things like wealth, status, and power are of little value when compared to God's grace bestowed upon the people.

Let us have a closer view. The first part, obviously, “the Fact” deals with King Canute, the Danish Conqueror who invaded England in the 10th century and successfully occupied it thus becoming King of England. He was a religious man who supported the Church and was told to be a faithful man.

He put the God's authority higher than man's ambitions that is seen in such passages:

“He only is a King, and he alone

Deserves the name (this truth the billows preach)

Whose everlasting laws, sea, earth, and heaven, obey (10, 86).”

Though initially he is presented as a powerful man, which might is so great that he alone is able to command the waves - '

O yeApproaching

Waters of the deep, that share

With this green isle my fortunes, come not where

Your Master's throne is set.(10, 86)

Twice in the poem he turns to his servants who praise him, he tells them about God's eternal power, but they are blind and do not accept the highest meaning of his words. Therefore, King Canute bends before God's authority as it is seen the only true one and defies the human power as being senseless to gain and hold -

“From that time forth did for his brows disown

The ostentatious symbol of a crown;

Esteeming earthly royalty

Contemptible as vain.”(10, 86)

Then the narration stops abruptly and with the help of the authors guide, the “vision” transfers to another scene, with King Alfred. This second part is mostly pantheistic, praising nature as God's emanative representation. This way of stylistic description was adopted by W. Wordsworth and is commonly seen throughout his poetry. Alfred once had lost all his power and sought any place to stay and rest with his thoughts of own fate. He spent much time on the run, wandering around the villages and, as he too was a religious man, might have turned to God for help. This is also quite obviously shown in the entire second part of the poem.

Special attention should be drawn to the distinct variety of stylistic devices used by the author in the poem: epithets ( “Rich Theme of England's fondest praise” towards Alfred, “wanton air”, “oriental flattery”, “earthly royalty”), metaphors (“Waters of the Deep” towards sea, “sluggish pools” as bays), simily (“souls like the flood”), anaphoric repetition (such…..such) - all that powerful items were used to draw our attention and to intensify the effect that is made by the magnificent plot. Extensive use of capitalization (Conqueror, King - relating to God, Nature, Ocean etc.) and antonomasia make that pantheistic and sublime image so admired by Wordsworth. One more thing that attracts our view is the attitude of the author to the barren men. He calls them “Servile Courtiers”, “the undisguised extent of mortal sway”, even “rugged northern mouths” (metonymy) to convey the thought of their mutual incapability to accept and evaluate the grace and power of the nature and thus God's authority even despite King's speech and personal example of loyalty towards the Highest Power, they are only able to display “oriental flattery”. This is important for understanding of his views concerning the extensive degeneration of the human society and his disregard towards this, meanwhile accentuating that only love to nature can bring back all the purity of thoughts and feelings in men's minds, and only faith can return people to the real progress.

Also significant is the point that both main characters (Canute and Alfred) don't communicate with each other, as it couldn't occur in the real time; they are not confronted with each other too. But both of them are doubtlessly considered as the greatest rules of England and ones among the most prominent leaders in Europe of that time. And they both “serve” the only aim in the poem - by their own example of virtue, faith and goodness they would guide to light and grace those who would read the poem and realize the great power of the Creator.

CONCLUSION

If one term can be used to describe the forces that have shaped the modern world, it is Romanticism. So potent has Romanticism been since the late 18th century that one author has called it “the profoundest cultural transformation in human history since the invention of the city (11, 218)”. Romanticism was not a movement; it was a series of movements that had dynamic impacts on art, literature, science, religion, economics, politics, and an individual's understanding of self. Not all streams of Romanticism were the same. Some, in fact, were almost completely the opposite in their results from others. Nor was the impact the same at all times. Thus, as romantic literature everywhere developed, imagination was praised over reason, emotions over logic, and intuition over science--making way for a vast body of literature of great sensibility and passion.

This research was dedicated to some of the most prominent poets of English and world Romantic literature: G.G. Byron, P. B. Shelley and W. Wordsworth. Several masterpieces were taken as the basis for the study. As the result of this research certain peculiarities have been found - the texts are enriched with various stylistic devices, commonly used to describe and praise nature, doom, and human's potential for freedom and self-realization. The nature and its elements are largely personified, and play often a meditative role, significant for understanding of reality by the reader. Allusions which can be seen throughout all the poems intend to take us back to the ancient times, so idealized by the Romantic poets. Often we observed the reference to the Bible in terms of impending doom and inevitable punishment for the deeds of the human race. God is praised as that eternal ideal which we must seek for self-development.

Romantic poets had different views on the world; Romanticism was very contradictive because of the constant conflicts that occurred in the poets' circles. But one should be said for sure - it is a magnificent movement, a philosophy in itself that draws our attention to the grace and power of the nature, strong will in overcoming obstacles, and faith in God as the main way of understanding man's destination, and foremost individual freedom.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Adonais: An Elegy on the Death of John Keats, Author of Endymion, Hyperion etc. (Pisa: With the types of Didot, 1821; Cambridge: Printed by W. Metcalfe & sold by Gee & Bridges, 1829). - 223p.

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7. Essay on Christianity, in Shelley Memorials, edited by Lady Jane Shelley (London: Smith, Elder, 1859). - 131p.

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Main Sources:

1. Rutherford, Byron: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970; New York: Barnes & Noble, 1970). - 245p.

2. The Poetical Works of Lord Byron. - London: Oxford University Press (Humphrey Milford) - 1935. - 345p.

3. George McLean Harper, William Wordsworth, His Life, Works, and Influence, 2 volumes (London: Murray, 1916). - 128p.

4. The Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, 4 volumes, edited by Mary Shelley (London: Edward Moxon, 1839; 1 volume, Philadelphia: Porter & Coates, 1839). - 235p.

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