Structural and semantic Characteristics of Nouns

Her daughter lost == daughter's loss

Her daughter was lost == daughter's loss

In other words, having no voice distinctions, the noun loss may correspond to both the active and the passive voice of the verb.

Since both 'possessive case' and 'common case' nouns may have right-hand connections with other nouns, it is interesting to see the difference between the two combinations in speech. This is what W. N. Francis writes on the subject The Structure of American English. New York, 1958.: "Nouns make up a considerable number (as many as 25 per sent) of the single-word modifiers of nouns

Possessive Noun-adjunct

child's play child psychology

a dog's life the dog days

a day's work the day shift'

my father's house a father image

that woman's doctor that woman doctor

The last pair illustrates vividly the difference in meaning there may be between these two structures of modification. The formal difference between them may be described as follows: a construction with of may be substituted for the possessive construction, and the determiner Article, possessive or demonstrative pronoun, etc. attached to the noun. (if there is one) will then go with the modifying noun; on the other hand, some other kind of construction must be substituted for the noun-adjunct, and the determiner goes with the head noun. In the following illustrations the symbol > means "transforms into"

My father's house > house of my father

that father image > that image like (a) father

that woman's doctor > doctor of that woman

that woman doctor > that doctor who is a woman.

As we see, the relations expressed by a 'possessive case' noun can usually be rendered by its 'common case' opposite preceded by of (the so-called 'of-phrase'). The 'possessive case' noun and the corresponding of-phrase are synonymous, but to a certain extent only.

Unlike the possessive case, the o/-phrase is freely used with all nouns irrespective of their lexical meanings. Its range of meaning is much wider than that of the possessive case. Thus, besides the 'possessive case' relations already mentioned it may show the relations of appraisal (a man of strong will), of material (a table of oak), of composition (a group of children), etc.

The of-phrase is believed to sound more formal than the possessive case. In formal style it is more common than the possessive.

E. g. Head of a girl (in a picture or sculpture exhibition programme), not a girl's head.

In the Russian language a noun in the genitive case may be adnominal and adverbial, i.e. it can be attached to a noun and to a verb.

E.g. дом отца, боюсь грозы.

The possessive case is practically adnominal, as in Tom's departure.

In sentences like The idea is George's, where George's is not followed by a noun, it is sometimes called the 'independent possessive'. But in reality it is not independent, as it refers to some noun, usually mentioned previously (the word idea in the sentence above). Therefore such possessives are called 'anaphorical'. But this term would be misapplied in cases like George's was a brilliant idea, where the noun idea follows the possessive.

Seeing that there is exact parallelism with the use of the so-called absolute possessive pronouns (The idea is mine. Mine was a brilliant idea), we shall call such possessives absolute.

In Modern English there exists a peculiar construction which is a combination of the possessive case and the of-phrase. The construction makes it possible to place an article, a demonstrative pronoun, etc. before the modified noun. Cf. John's friend and a (the, that) friend of John's. The possessive case in the construction is absolute. Cf. a (the, that) friend of yours.

The construction usually has a partitive meaning. A friend of Mary's -- one of Mary's friends. It may also be used for stylistic purposes mostly with ironic colouring. That long nose of John's.

In cases like I dined at my aunt's or a garden party at Brown's the possessive case is really independent. It does not refer to any other noun, and does not correspond to an absolute possessive pronoun. The meaning of the independent possessive is that of locality. It denotes the house, shop, cathedral, place of business, etc. of the person denoted by the noun. E. g. the baker's, draper's, watchmaker's, etc., also St. Paul's .

2.3.2 The use of Articles with Nouns in Some Set Expessions

a) The use of indefinite article with nouns in some set expressions. В.Л. Каушанская и др. Грамматика английского языка (на английском языке). 1973 M. Стр. 36

1. in a hurry -- второпях

Things done in a hurry are done badly.

2. to have a mind to do some thing (a great mind, a good mind) -- иметь желание что-либо сделать, быть склонным что-либо сделать

I have a great mind to have a serious talk with her.

3. to fly into a passion -- прийти в бешенство

If you contradict him, he will fly into a passion.

4. to get in a fury (in a rage) -- прийти и ярость

If you contradict him, he will get in a fury (in a rage).

5. to take a fancy to (chiefly with names of living beings) -- проникнуться симпатией, по чувствовать расположение

I wonder why she took a fancy to the little girl.

6. in a low (loud) voice -- тихо (громко)

Don't speak in a low voice.

7. a great many (with countables) -- много

I have spoken to him a great many times.

8. a great deal (with uncountables) -- много

We can't skate to-day, there is a great deal of snow on the ice.

9. it is a pity --жаль

It is a pity you did not go to the concert last night

10. it is a shame -- стыдно

It is a shame not to know these elementary things.

11. it is a pleasure -- приятно

It is a pleasure to read beautiful poetry.

12. as a result --в результате

As a result of the inhabitants' strenuous efforts the damaged city

13. to have a good time -- хорошо провести время

Last night we went to an evening party and had a very good time.

14. to be at a loss --быть в недоумении

She was at a loss what to say.

15. at a glance -- сразу, с первого взгляда

She saw at a glance that something had happened.

b) The use of definite article with nouns in some set expressions.

1. it is out of the question --об этом не может быть и речи

'Will you go to the theatre tonight?" "It's out of the question. I have lots of things to do."

2. to take the trouble to do something -- потрудиться

You had a difficult text to translate and you did not take the trouble to consult the dictionary.

3. in the original -- в оригинале

You know English well enough to read Dickens in the original.

4. to play the piano (the violin, the harp) -- играть на рояле (скрипке, арфе)

She plays the piano very well.

5. to keep the house -- сидеть дома

She has a cold and will have to keep the house for a couple of days.

6. to keep the bed -- соблюдать постельный режим

She has a bad cold and will have to keep the bed for a couple of days.

7. on the whole -- в целом

On the whole Tom is a pleasant fellow, but sometimes he has whims.

8. the other day (refers to the past) -- па днях

I met him the other day.

9. on the one hand…on the other hand -- с одной стороны...с другой стороны

On the one hand he certainly excites suspicion, but on the other hand we have not enough evidence against him. (Oppenhe'un)

10. to tell (to speak) the truth -- говорить правду; to tell the truth -- no правде говоря

He always speaks (tells) the truth. To tell the truth, I don't like the girl.

11. to be on the safe side --для верности

I am almost sure of the pronunciation of this name, but to be on the safe side let us consult the pronouncing dictionary.

c) Nouns in some set expressions use without an article.

1. out of doors -- на дворе, на улице, вне дома

The children spent most of the time out of doors.

2. to take to heart -- принимать близко к сердцу

Don't take things too much to heart.

3. to take offence -- обижаться

If he had heard your remark, he would have taken offence.

4. to"1 give (to get, to asft) per mission-- дать (получить, просить) разрешение

I asked permission to keep the book a little longer.

5. to lose heart --терять мужество, приходить в уныние

He found the subject very difficult at first, but he did not lose heart.

6. at present -- в настоящее время

You may go home, we don't want you at present.

7. from morning till night--с утра до вечера

He worked in his litte garden from morning till night.

8. from head to foot --с головы до ног

She was dressed in furs from liead to foot.

9. from beginning to end -- с начала до конца

The whole story is a lie from beginning to end.

10. at first sight -- с первого взгляда

He fell in love with her- at first sight.

11. by chance -- случайно

They met quite by chance.

12. by mistake -- по ошибке

I have brought the wrong book by mistake.

13. for hours --часами

He could read for hours.

14. for ages --целую вечность

I have not seen you for ages.

15. by land, by air, by sea -- сушей, по воздуху, морем

I like travelling by sea.

16. to go to sea -- стать моряком

My sister wants to be a doctor, and my brother wants to go to sea.

17. on deck -- на палубе

We spent hours on deck.

18. to keep house --вести хозяйство

Her sister keeps house for her.

19. at sunrise --на рассвете

We left the town at sunrise.

20. at sunset -- на закате

We arrived at the village at sunset.

21. at work --за работой

Whenever I come, he is always at work.

22. at peace -- в мире

We want to be at peace with all countries.

2.3.3. Test Exercises

Test 1

Make personal nouns from these words.

1. drama (____ = someone who writes plays)

2. guard (____ = a person who cares for persons or property)

3. police (____ = a member of a police force)

4. botany (____ = a biologist specializing in the study of plants)

5. surgery (____ = a physician who specializes in surgery)

6. diet (____ = a specialist in the study of nutrition)

7. idealism (____ = someone guided more by ideals than by practical considerations)

8. technique (____ = someone known for high skill in some intellectual or artistic technique)

9. mathematics (____ = a person skilled in mathematics)

10. accounting (____ = someone who maintains and audits business accounts)

11. drug (____ = a health professional trained in the art of preparing and dispensing drugs)

12. essay (____ = a writer of literary works)

13. shoe (____ = a person who makes or repairs shoes)

14. satire (____ = uses ridicule, irony, sarcasm)

15. beauty (____ = someone who works in a beauty parlour)

16. grammar (____ = a linguist who specializes in the study of grammar and syntax)

17. dentistry (____ = a person qualified to practice dentistry)

18. assistance (____ = a person who helps someone do his job, providing him with practical support)

19. physics (____ = a licensed medical practitioner)

20. physics (____ = a scientist trained in physics)

21. technology (____ = a person who uses scientific knowledge to solve practical problems)

22. simple (____ = a person lacking intelligence or common sense)

23. serving (____ = a person working in the service of another)

24. senate (____ = a member of a senate)

25. realism (____ = a philosopher who believes that universals are real and exist independently of anyone thinking of them)

26. piano (____ = a person who plays the piano)

27. philosophy (____ = a specialist in philosophy, a wise person who is calm and rational)

28. pharmacy (____ = a health professional trained in the art of preparing and dispensing drugs)

29. novel (____ = someone who writes novels)

30. nationalism (____ = one who loves and is prepared to defend his or her country)

31. music (____ = someone who plays a musical instrument as a profession)

32. industrialism (____ = someone who manages or has significant financial interest in an industrial enterprise)

33. humanity (____ = someone devoted to the promotion of human welfare and to social reforms)

34. fire (____= a person who tends fires, a member of a fire department who tries to extinguish fires)

35. environment (____ = someone who works to protect the environment from destruction or pollution)

36. electric (____ = a person who installs or repairs electrical or telephone lines)

37. economy (____= an expert in the science of economics)

38. cycle (____ = a person who rides a bicycle)

39. communism (____ = a member of the communist party, a socialist who advocates communism)

40. biology (____ = a scientist who studies living organisms)

Right Answers:

1. dramatist

2. guardian

3. policeman

4. botanist

5. surgeon

6. dietician

7. idealist

8. technician

9. mathematician

10. accountant

11. druggist

12. essayist

13. shoemaker

14. satirist

15. beautician

16. grammarian

17. dentist

18. assistant

19. physician

20. Physicist

21. technologist

22. simpleton

23. servant

24. senator

25. realist

26. pianist

27. philosopher

28. pharmacist

29. novelist

30. nationalist

31. musician

32. industrialist

33. humanitarian

34. fire-fighter

35. environmentalist

36. electrician

37. economist

38. cyclist

39. communist

40. biologist

Test 2.

Point out right meaning of each noun

1. n. momentum

(a) a description or report of something as modified by one's character or opinion

(b) an impetus

(c) outward appearance

(d) an image or likeness

2. n. impertinence

(a) the change of endings in nouns and adjectives to express their different relations of gender

(b) set way of saying or doing something

(c) rudeness

(d) particular conduct or administration of affairs

3. n. discord

(a) absence of harmoniousness

(b) a performer of moral and social duties

(c) simultaneousness

(d) something that begins or expresses beginning

4. n. ultimatum

(a) carriage of the body in going

(b) a final statement or proposal, as concerning terms or conditions

(c) a mark for failure or bad conduct

(d) an instrument for recording the phenomena of earthquakes

5. n. auricle

(a) a person raving with madness

(b) one of the two chambers of the heart which receives the blood from the veins

(c) any dialectic pronunciation of English, especially that of the Irish people

(d) a great Hindu prince

6. n. entrails

(a) the galaxy

(b) that which moves the mind or inflames the passions

(c) the junction of two bodies at an equally divided angle

(d) internal parts of an animal

7. n. pentagon

(a) temporary diminution of a disease

(b) conduct directed against public order and the tranquillity of the state

(c) interpretation

(d) a figure, especially, with five angles and five sides

8. n. degradation

(a) diminution, as of strength or magnitude

(b) the setting forth of a subject under the guise of another subject of aptly suggestive likeness

(c) masculinity

(d) a brief treatise or essay, usually on a subject of current interest

9. n. opprobrium

(a) any growth of leaves

(b) a young goose

(c) a probability

(d) the state of being scornfully reproached or accused of evil

10. n. corpuscle

(a) a minute particle of matter

(b) subtle contrivance used to gain a point

(c) something added or to be added

(d) a god, goddess or divine person

Keys:

1. b

2. c

3. a

4. b

5. b

6. d

7. d

8. a

9. d

10. b

2.4 Comparison of English and Russian nouns

Let us compare the English noun with its Russian counterpart See Appendix Table 3.. The five properties we use as criteria for distinguishing parts of speech will serve as the basis of comparison.

1. The lexico-grammatical meanings are similar.

2. The variety of lexico-grammatical morphemes is much greater in the Russian noun. A peculiarity of Russian is the abundance of suffixes of "subjective appraisal", as in братец, билетик, петушок, карманчик, частица, ножка, пылинка, хохотушка, звездочка, дедушка, шалунишка, доченька, платьице, старикашка, дурачина, голосище, etc. (Cf.-let, in booklet, streamlet, etc.).

3. In both languages we find the categories of number and case. But their opposemes, especially those of the category of case, differ greatly in the two languages.

a) A Russian case opposeme contains six members as against the English two-member case opposeme.

b) In English the "singular number, common case" grammeme is as a rule not marked. In Russian any grammeme can be marked.

E. g. рука, окно, etc.

c) The productive positive number and case morphemes are standard in English (-(e)s and -'s) and non-standard in Russian (столы, стулья, книги, столов, стульев, книг, etc.).

d) Number and case are sometimes expressed by separate morphemes in English (e. g. oxen's), while in Russian they are inseparable.

e) The case morpheme -'s has a certain freedom of distribution, not observed in any case morpheme of the Russian language.

f) Though in both languages the meaning of case is "the relation of nouns to other words in. speech", the meaning of the possessive case is in the main narrowed to "the relation to other nouns" only, which distinguishes this case from the other cases of both Russian and English.

g) Owing to the narrowness of the "possessive case", the only other case, the "common case", is exceptionally wide.

In fact, the extent of its meaning almost equals that of all the six cases of Russian nouns. Hence the necessity of specification by prepositions and, consequently, the enormous importance of prepositions as a characteristic feature of English.

h) One of the prepositional phrases, the o/-phrase can practically replace the possessive case. The difference between them is mostly stylistic. There is nothing similar in Russian.

4. Russian nouns fall into three gender subclasses, which is alien to English.

5. In both languages nouns can be divided into countables and uncountables, the latter -- into singularia tantum and pluralia tantum. In both languages uncountables have oblique 'number' meanings through the analogy in form and combinability with countables. But in the Russian language there is nearly always correlation between form and combinability (сани едут, часы стали, семья ждет, комитет заседает) which is not the case in English (the cattle are, physics is, the. family is or are).

6. The number of Russian nouns having no case opposites is small. They are comparatively recent borrowings like пальто, депо, такси, кенгуру, etc. In English the majority of nouns have no case opposites.

7. In both languages the functions of different case grammemes are different. In Russian only a nominative case grammeme can be the subject, only an accusative case grammeme can be a direct object, only a nominative or an instrumental case grammeme is used as a predicative.

In English possessive case grammemes are used almost exclusively as attributes. Common case grammemes fulfil the functions of almost any part of the sentence.

III. Conclusion

In the present paper we attempted to investigate the noun, the main part of speech in English grammar. We chose the noun as the theme of our qualification work because we interested in it. We used different kind of references to investigate the noun. In other words, we mentioned that we studied the main aspects of English nouns: grammatical categories, grammatical characteristics, semantical characteristics, and rule of correct use of English nouns.

The problem of definition of noun comes to be one of the main problems for those who study noun. There is a great number of definitions that define nouns from different points of view. Summarizing all of them we can conclude that noun is a word expressing substance in the widest sense of the word. In the concept of substance we include not only names of living beings (e.g. boy, girl, bird) and lifeless things (e.g. table, chair, book), but also names of abstract notions, i.e. qualities, slates, actions (kindness, strength, sleep, fear, conversation, fight), abstracted from their bearers.

The present work proves that nouns must be treated very accurately because some nouns, in case of changing their grammatical form, can receive another lexical meaning. If you say “I love this people”, one will understand that you love the exact group of people, but if you say “I love these peoples” you might be understood as loving group of nations. This is because the word `people' is Pluralia Tantum, i.e. has not singular form at all, and prefix -s won't bring the meaning of plurality, but the meaning of word `nations'.

Nouns can be classified further as count nouns, which name anything that can be counted (four books, two continents, a few dishes, a dozen buildings); mass nouns (or non-count nouns), which name something that can't be counted (water, air, energy, blood); and collective nouns, which can take a singular form but are composed of more than one individual person or items (jury, team, class, committee, herd). We should note that some words can be either a count noun or a non-count noun depending on how they're being used in a sentence. Whether or not a noun is uncountable is determined by its meaning: an uncountable noun represents something which tends to be viewed as a whole or as a single entity, rather than as one of a number of items which can be counted as individual units. Singular verb forms are used with uncountable nouns. Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide into separate elements. We cannot "count" them. For example, we cannot count "milk". We can count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but we cannot count "milk" itself. We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we can count. For example: "pen". We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens. We can say that it is finished investigation of this theme our diploma work.

The present material can be used at the lessons of grammar, practical course of English language, lexicology, and speech practice in both: universities and English classes at schools. This paper can help to create the teaching aids, textbooks, etc. Teachers and students might use the results of the present work for the further investigations.

IV. Bibliography

1 В.Л. Каушанская и др. Грамматика английского языка (на английском языке). 1973 M.

2. Kaushanskaya et. al. A Grammar of the English Language (practice book) L.,Prosveshcheniye 1967

3. Ganshina and N. Vasilevskaya. English Grammar. M., 1953

4. B.S. Khaimovich, B.I. Rogovskaya. A Course in English Grammar. 1966 p

5. Г. Н. Воронцова. Очерки по грамматике английского языка. М., 1960

6. Б. Л. Ильиш, “The Structure of English Language”

7. O. Jespersen. Essentials of English Grammar. N.Y., 1938

8. Л. С. Бархударов, Д. А. Штелинг. Грамматика английского языка. М., 1960

9. M. Bryant. A Functional English Grammar. Boston, 1945

10. Ch. Barber. Linguistic change in Present-Day English. Edinburgh, 1964

11. The Structure of American English. New York, 1958.

12. Ермолаева Л.С. Очерки по сопоставительной грамматике германских языков. - М.,1987. - 127 c.

13. Зятковская Р.Г. Суффиксальная система современного английского языка. - М., 1971. - 187 c.

14. Иванова И.П. О характеристике сложного слова в английском языке. «Вопросы структуры английского языка в синхронии и диахронии», вып. I. - Л., 1967. - 95 с.

15. Иванова И.П., Бурлакова В.В., Почепцов Г.Г. Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка. - М.,1981. - 285 c.

16. Ильиш Б.А. Строй современного английского языка (теоретический курс). М.-Л., 1971. - 315 с.

17. Arnold J. V. The English Word. M., 1986. - 240 c.

18. Blokh M.Y. A Course in Theoretical English Grammar. - M.,1983. - 383 c.

19. Glencoe Language Arts “Grammar and Composition Handbook” Grade 6, Columbus, Mc,Grow Publishers 2002 pp.79-94

20. Cramer R, et al. Language Illinois, 1989 pp.200-212

21. Качалова К.Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика английского языка с упражнениями и ключами. М, 1997. с.20-41, 487-489

22. World Book Encyclopedia Vol.1 NY. 1993 pp.298-299

23. Internet:http://www.esllessons.edu/mainpage.htm

24. Internet:http://www.freeesays.com/languages/S.Hal

V. APPENDIX

Table 1

Table 2

Table 3

Left-hand connections with	Russian nouns	English nouns
Prepositions	1) Not the nominative case 2) Different cases with different prepositions	The common case with any preposition
Adjectives	Grammatical combinability	No grammatical combinability
Numerals a) cardinal b) ordinal	Mostly the genitive case Grammatical combinability	both cases No grammatical combinability
Verbs	-	-
a) notional b) linking	1) any case 2) different cases with different verbs mostly the instrumental case, sometimes the nominative or the genitive case	the common case with any verb mostly the common case
Left-hand connections with	Russian nouns	English nouns
Nouns Articles	mostly the genitive case ---	the common case both cases (a not before plurals)
Right-hand connections with	Russian nouns	English nouns
Prepositions Verbs Nouns	any case any case, but mostly nomina-tive any case	the common case usually the com-mon case both cases