The types of interpreting

Modes and types of interpreting and also lexical aspects of interpreting. Handling context-free and context-bound words. Handling equivalent-lacking words and translators false friends. Translation of cultures and political terms. Translation of verbs.

Рубрика Иностранные языки и языкознание
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Язык английский
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g) Shift: Shift and Verticality are the fundamental principles underlying this note-taking system.

To explain Shift let us take an example: «Over the course of 1954, prices rose, although not to the same extent as income, thus the population's net income increased.» Our notes will be as follows (the symbol denotes increase):

54, prices

but ----- no = income

so ----Popon

Word for word on the first line: Over the course of 1954, prices rose

Word for word on the second line: although not to the same extent as income,

Word for word on the third line: thus the population's net income increased. [7, p. 56]

Having used Shift to give our notes a vertical layout on the page, noting the links is almost enough to give us an accurate and full version of the text.

Shift means writing notes in the place on a lower line where they would have appeared had the text on the line above been repeated.

2. Lexical aspects of interpreting

2.1 Handling context-free and context-bound words

As a rule, the object of translation is not a list of separate lexical units but a coherent text in which the SL words make up an integral whole. Though each word in the language has its own meaning, the actual information it conveys in a text depends, to a great extent, on its contextual environment. Generally speaking, the meaning of any word in the text cannot be understood and translated without due regard to the specific context in which it is actualized. Some words, however, are less sensitive to the contextual influence than others. There are words with definite meanings which are retained in most contexts and are relatively context-free. Context-free words are mainly found among proper and geographical names, titles of magazines and newspapers, names of various firms, organizations, ships, aircraft and the like, as well as among technical terms used by experts in all fields of human endeavour. Context-free words have an important role to play in the translating process. They usually have permanent equivalents in TL which, in most cases, can be used in TT. The translator is thus provided with reference points helping him to choose the appropriate translation variants. The permanent equivalents of context-free words are often formed by transcription (with possible elements of transliteration) or loan translations. Proper and geographical names are transcribed with TL letters

Smith - Смит, Brown - Браун, John Fitzgerald Kennedy - Джон Фитц-жеральд Кеннеди; Cleveland - Кливленд, Rhode Island - Род-Айленд, Ontario - Онтарио; Downing Street - Даунинг-стрит, Foley Square - Фоли-сквер.

The same is true about the titles of periodicals and the names of firms and corporations

Life-лЛайф», US News and World Report - «ЮС ньюс энд уорлд рипорт», General Motors Corporation - «Дженерал моторе корпорейшн», Harriman and Brothers - «Гар-риман энд бразерс», Anaconda Mining Company - «Анаконда май-нинг компани». [11, p. 78]

Transcription is also used to reproduce in TL the names of ships, aircraft, missiles and pieces of military equipment:

Queen Elisabeth - «Ky-ин Рлизабет», Spitfire - «Спитфайр», Hawk - «Хок», Trident - «Трайдент», Honest John - «Онест Джон».

The rules of transcription have two minor exceptions. First, it is sometimes supplemented by elements of transliteration when SL letters are reproduced in TT instead of sounds. This technique is used with mute and double consonants between vowels or at the end of the word and with neutral vowels as well as to preserve some elements of SL spelling so as to make the TL equivalent resemble some familiar. Second, there are some traditional exceptions in rendering the names of historical personalities and geographical names

Charles I - Карл I, James II - Яков П, Edinborough - Эдинбург.

Some geographical names are made up of common nouns and are translated word-for-word:

The United States of America - Соединенные Штаты Америки, the United Kingdom - Соединенное Королевство, the Rocky Mountains - Скалистые горы.

If the name includes both a proper name and a common name, the former is transcribed while the latter is either translated or transcribed or both:

the Atlantic Ocean - Атлантический океан, Kansas City - Канзас-сити, New Hampshire - Нью-Хемпшир, Firth of Clyde - залив Ферт-оф-Кпай.

Names of political parties, trade unions and similar bodies are usually translated word-for-word (with or without a change in the word-order):

The Republican Party - республиканская партия, the United Automobile Workers Union - Объединенный npoqscoioa рабочих автомобильной промышленности, the Federal Bureau of Investigation - Федеральное бюро расследований.

Terminological words are also relatively context-free though the context often helps to identify the specific field to which the term belongs. In the sentence 'These rifles are provided with a new type of foresight», the context clearly shows that the meaning of «foresight» is that of a military term and therefore all other meanings of the word can be disregarded. The context may also help to understand the meaning of the term in the text when it can denote more than one specific concept. For instance, in the US political terminology the term «state» can refer either to a national state or to one of the states within a federal entity. The following context will enable the translator to make the correct choice: «Both the state and Federal authorities were accused of establishing a police state.» In the first case the term «state» is contrasted with «Federal» and will be translated as «штат», while in the second case it obviously means «государство». As a rule, English technical terms (as well as political terms and terms in any other specific field) have their permanent equivalents in the respective Russian terminological systems:

magnitude - величина, oxygen - кислород, surplus value - прибавочная стоимость, Embassy - посольство, legislation - законодательство.

Many Russian equivalents have been formed from the English terms by transcription or loan translations:

computer - компьютер, electron - электрон, Congressman - конгрессмен, impeachment - импичмент, shadow cabinet - «теневой кабинет», nuclear deterrent - ядерное устрашение.

Quite a few among them are international terms:

theorem - теорема, television - телевидение, president - президент, declaration - декларация, diplomacy - дипломатия. In some cases there are parallel forms in Russian: one formed by transcription and the other, so to speak, native, e.g.: резистор and сопротивление, бустер and ускоритель, индустрия and промышленность, тред-юнион and про4>союз, лидер and руководитель. [13, p. 88]

The translator makes his choice considering whether ST is highly technical or not, for a borrowed term is usually more familiar to specialists than to laymen. He has also to take into account the possible differences between the two forms in the way they are used in TL. For example, the Russian «индустрия» is restricted in usage and somewhat old-fashioned, «тред-юнион» always refers to British trade-unions and «лидер» gives the text a slightly foreign flavour. Dealing with context-free words the translator must be aware of two common causes of translation errors. First, English and Russian terms can be similar in form but different in meaning. A «decade» is not «декада», an «instrument» is not «инструмент», and a «department» in the United Slates is not «департамент». Such words belong to the so-called false friends of the translator (see below). Second, the translator should not rely on the «inner form» of the English term to understand its meaning or to find a proper Russian equivalent for it is often misleading. A «packing industry is not «упаковочная» but «консервная промышленность», «conventional armaments» are not «условные» but «обычные вооружения» and a «public school» in Britain is not «публичная» or «общедоступная» but «частная школа». Translation of technical terms puts a premium on the translator's knowledge of the subject-matter of ST. He must take great pains to get familiar with the system of terms in the appropriate field and make good use of technical dictionaries and other books of reference. The words dealt with above are relatively independent of the context so that they have a definite meaning which is reproduced in many texts as it stands. This is not the case, however, with most words in the English vocabulary whose meaning in any sentence largely depends on the context in which they are used. True, all words have meanings of their own which are defined in dictionaries but the context may specify or modify the word's meaning, neutralize or emphasize some part of its semantics. And before looking for an equivalent, the translator has to make a careful study of the context to identify the contextual meaning of the word that should be rendered in translation. This meaning is the result of the interaction between the word semantics and the methods of its actualization in the speech act.

Most of the words are polysemantic, that is, they have several meanings. As a rule, the word is used in the sentence in one of its meanings and the context must show what meaning has been selected by the speaker and cut off all other meanings irrelevant for the particular act of communication. If somebody complains that 'Tew Europeans speak Mandarin», the context inequivocally shows that it is the Chinese language that is meant and not a Chinese imperial official or the Chinese fruit. If the same idea is expressed in a more ambiguous way, for instance, «Few Europeans know the first thing about Mandarin», the context of the sentence may fail to indicate the relevant meaning beyond any doubt but the rest of the text or the circumstances of communication will certainly do that.

The context has also a decisive role to play in the selection of TL equivalents to the words of the original. We know that in most cases, the meaning of a SL word can be rendered in TL by a number of regular equivalents. Variable equivalents can be found not only to the polysemantic words but also to the monosemantic words as well as to a semantic variant of a polysemantic word, that is, to one of its meanings which can be actualized in the course of communication. In such cases after the translator has ascertained what meaning the word has in the original text he still has to choose one of the regular equivalents which fits the context best of all. In other words, the role of the context is even greater for the translator than for an ordinary SL receptor. Suppose he is to translate the following English sentence 'This issue of the paper devoted about half of its twenty news columns to the trial of a murderer». The context enables the translator to understand that the «issue» refers here to a publication, the «paper» is a newspaper and the «column» is a department in that newspaper. But he has also to find additional information in the context which will allow him to choose an equivalent to «issue» among such Russian words as «выпуск, издание, номер» or to compare the use of the Russian «отдел, колонка, столбец» as equivalents to «column». No less important is the role of the context in translating the words with a wide range of reference whose equivalents are too numerous to be listed in any dictionary. For example, the English noun «record» is defined as «something that records» or «the recorded facts about something or someone» and can refer to any document or any events, past or present. It is clear that the Russian names of documents or events cannot be foreseen and the translator has to find the appropriate occasional equivalent in each particular context.

The context may modify the meaning of a word to such an extent that its regular equivalents will not fit TT. In the following sentence: «History has dealt with Hitler; history will deal with all would-be Hitlers», the translator has to do with the verb «to deal» used in the sentence in the meaning which is usually rendered into Russian as «обходиться» or «поступать». But obviously history has dealt with Hitler as severely as he deserved and the translator will opt for a stronger occasional equivalent like «покончить». The ability to render the contextual meanings is an essential element of the translator's professional skill.

The contextual modification may extend to the connotative meaning of the word. The translator is greatly concerned about the adequate reproduction of this part of the word semantics since it has an impact upon the whole text. Pot example, the English noun «ambition» and the adjective «ambitious» can contextually assume either a positive or a negative connotation. Accordingly, «the UN ambitious program of providing food for the people of the earth» will be translated as «грандиозная программа ООН» while the «ambitious plans of South African racists» will be rendered as «честолюбивые планы южно-африканских расистов». [12, p. 94] The English-Russian dictionary is the translator's best friend and assistant in finding the appropriate equivalent. Sometimes the context tells the translator that one of the dictionary equivalents to the given word can be well used in TT. Even if the entry in his dictionary does not provide him with an equivalent that fits his context, the translator can use the dictionary data to facilitate the solution. Suppose he comes across a sentence in ST which runs as follows:

The United States worked out a formula which later came to be known as dollar diplomacy.

None of the equivalents suggested by I.R. Galperin's «New English-Russian Dictionary» (йрормула, рецепт, догмат, шаблон) fits the context of the sentence which deals with a stage in the US political history. But combining these data with the context the translator will look for a Russian substitute for a «political formula» and may arrive at such terms as «политическая доктрина» or «политическая программа»:

США выработали политическую доктрину, которая впоследствии стала именоваться «долларовой дипломатией».

The translator should consult the context with special care if his dictionary suggests only one equivalent. He should not be in a hurry to use this equivalent in his text without first ascertaining that the English word really is context-free and is always translated in the same way. In case it is not, the entry is not exhaustive and the translator should look for another way out. The «New English-Russian Dictionary', for example, treats the English words «opportunism» and «opportunist» as political terms and gives only one equivalent to each: «оппортунизм» and «оппортунист». An English-English dictionary, however, will define «opportunism» as «the art, policy, or practice of taking advantage of opportunities or circumstances». And when the word is used as a general term of disapprobation implying little regard for principles or consequences, the equivalents suggested by the dictionary have to be rejected in favor of such Russian words as «конъюнктурщик, приспособленец» and the like. This is also an illustration of the usefulness of an English-English dictionary to the translator who should always turn to it for more complete information on the word semantics. Professional skill in using both the dictionary data and the information extracted from the context to solve his translation problems is the hallmark of a good translator.

2.2 Handling equivalent-lacking words and translators false friends

It has been pointed out that many English words have no regular equivalents, and a number of techniques has been suggested for rendering the meanings of such equivalent-lacking words in TT. Now the practicing translator most often has to resort to such techniques when he comes across some new-coined words in the source text or deals with names of objects or phenomena unknown to the TL community (the so-called «realia»). New words are coined in the language to give names to new objects, or phenomena which become known to the people. This process is going on a considerable scale as shown by the necessity of publishing dictionaries of new words. With the English vocabulary constantly expanding, no dictionary can catch up with the new arrivals and give a more or less complete list of the new words. Moreover there are numerous short-lived lexical units created ad hoc by the English-speaking people in the process of oral or written communication. Such words may never get in common use and will not be registered by the dictionaries but they are well understood by the communicants since they are coined on the familiar structural and semantic models. If someone is ever referred to as a «Polandologist», the meaning will be readily understood against such terms as «Kremlinologist» or «Sovietologist». If a politician is called «a nuclearist», the new coinage will obviously mean a supporter of nuclear arms race. «A zero-growther» would be associated with some zero-growth theory or policy and so on. When new words come into being to denote new objects or phenomena, they naturally cannot have regular equivalents in another language. Such equivalents may only gradually evolve as the result of extensive contacts between the two nations. Therefore the translator coming across a new coinage has to interpret its meaning and to choose the appropriate way of rendering it in his translation. Consider the following sentence:

«In many European capitals central streets have been recently pedestrianized.»

First, the translator will recognize the origin of «pedestrianize» which is coined from the word «pedestrian» - «пешеход» and the verb-forming suffix - ize. Then he will realize the impossibility of a similar formation in Russian (опешеходить!) and will opt for a semantic transformation:

«движение транспорта было запрещено», «улицы были закрыты для транспорта» or «улицы были отведены только для пешеходов».

As often as not a whole set of new words may enter in common use, all formed on the same model. Thus, the anti-segregation movement in the United States in the 1960's introduced a number of new terms to name various kinds of public demonstrations formed from a verb + - in on the analogy of «sit-in»: «ride-in» (in segregated buses), «swim-in» (in segregated swimming pools), «pray-in» (in segregated churches) and many others. Various translators may select different ways of translating a new coinage, with several substitutes competing with one another. As a rule, one of them becomes more common and begins to be used predominantly. For instance, the new term «word-processor» was translated into Russian as «словообработчик», «словопроцессор» and «текстопроцессор», the last substitute gaining the upper hand. The translator should carefully watch the development of the usage and follow the predominant trend. Similar problems have to be solved by the translator when he deals with equivalent-lacking words referring to various SL realia. As often as not, the translator tries to transfer the name to TL by way of borrowing, loan word or approximate equivalents. Many English words have been introduced in Russian in this way: «бейсбол» (baseball), «небоскреб» (skyscraper), «саквояжники» (carpet baggers), etc. Quite a number of equivalent-lacking words of this type, however, still have no established substitutes in Russian, and the translator has to look for an occasional equivalent each time he comes across such a word in the source text. Mention can be made here of 'filibustering», «baby-sitter», «tinkerer», «know-how», «ladykiller», and many others.

A large group of equivalent-lacking English words includes words of general semantics which may have a great number of substitutes in Russian which cannot be listed or enumerated. These are such words as «approach, control, corporate, pattern, record, facility», etc. Numerous lexical units of this type are created by conversion especially when compound verbs are nominalized. What is «a fix-up» for example? It can refer to anything that is fixed up. And «a set-up» is anything that is set up, literally or figuratively. The translator is expected to understand the general idea conveyed by the word and to see what referent it is denoting in each particular case.

Special attention should be paid to English conjunctions and prepositions which are often used differently from their apparent equivalents in Russian and are, in fact, equivalent-lacking. Such common conjunctions as «when, if, as, once, whichever» and some others are not infrequently the cause of errors in translation and should be most carefully studied.

Similar pitfalls can be set for the translator by such productive English «semi-suffixes» as

- minded, - conscious, - oriented, - manship, etc.

In conclusion, let us recall that any word may become equivalent-lacking if the particular context makes it impossible to use its regular equivalent and forces the translator to resort to some semantic transformation. Translating equivalent-lacking words calls for a good deal of ingenuity and imagination on the part of the translator who should be well trained to use the appropriate semantic transformations, whenever necessary. At the same time he must be prepared to look for new ways of solving his problems whenever the standard methods cannot be applied to the particular context.

There are words in the source and target languages which are more or less similar in form. Such words are of great interest to the translator since he is naturally inclined to take this formal similarity for the semantic proximity and to regard the words that look alike as permanent equivalents. The formal similarity is usually the result of the two words having the common origin, mainly derived from either Greek or Latin. Since such words can be found in a number of languages, they are referred to as «international».

As a matter of fact, very few international words have the same meanings in different languages. In respect to English and Russian we can cite the words like the English «parliament, theorem, diameter» and their Russian counterparts «парламент, теорема, диаметр». In most cases, however, the semantics of such words in English and in Russian do not coincide and they should rather be named «pseudointernational». Their formal similarity suggesting that they are interchangeable, is, therefore, deceptive and may lead to translation errors. For that reason they are often referred to as the translator's false friends. The pseudointernational words can be classified in two main groups. First, there are words which are similar in form but completely different in meaning. Here the risk of making a bad mistake is very great whenever the translator fails to consult his dictionary. Lots of mistakes have been made translating such English words as «decade, complexion, lunatic, accurate, actual, aspirant» and the like.

(1) It lasted the whole decade.

(2) She has a very fine complexion.

(3) Well, he must be a lunatic.

The respective Russian words «декада, комплекция, лунатик» are pseudointernational and cannot be used in translation.

(1) Это продолжалось целое десятилетие.

(2) У нее прекрасный цвет лица.

(3) Да он, должно быть, сумасшедший. [11, p. 153]

Second, there are many pseudointernational words which are not fully interchangeable though there are some common elements in their semantics. They may become the false friends if the translator substitutes one of them for the other without due regard to the difference in their meaning or to the way the English word is used in the particular context. The translator should bear in mind that a number of factors can preclude the possibility of using the formally similar word as an equivalent. Among these factors the following are most important: a) The semantic factor resulting from the different subsequent development of the words borrowed by the two languages from the same source. For instance, the English «idiom» can be well rendered by its Russian counterpart to convey the idea of an expression whose meaning cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements but has developed such additional meanings as dialect (local idiom) and individual style (Shakespeare's idiom). When the word is used in either of these meanings its equivalent in Russian will not be «идиом», but «диалект, наречие» or «стиль», respectively.

As often as not, the translator may opt for an occasional equivalent to a pseudointernational word just as he may do while dealing with any other type of the word:

South Vietnam was a vast laboratory for the testing of weapons of counter-guerrilla warfare.

Южный Вьетнам стал полигоном для испытания оружия, используемого в войне против партизан.

b) The stylistic factor resulting from the difference in the emotive or stylistic connotation of the correlated words. For example, the English «career» is neutral while the Russian «карьера» is largely negative. The translator has to reject the pseudointernational substitute and to look for another way out

Davy took on Faraday as his assistant and thereby opened a scientific career for him.

Дэви взял Фарадея к себе в ассистенты и тем самым открыл ему путь в науку.

c) The co-occurrence factor reflecting the difference in the lexical combinability rules in the two languages. The choice of an equivalent is often influenced by the usage preferring a standard combination of words to the formally similar substitute. So, a «defect» has a formal counterpart in the Russian «дефект» but «theoretical and organizational defects» will be rather «теоретические и организационные просчеты». A «gesture» is usually translated as «жест» but the Russian word will not be used to translate the following sentence for the combinability factor:

The reason for including only minor gestures of reforms in the program

Причина включения в программу лишь жалкого подобия реформ

d) The pragmatic factor reflecting the difference in the background knowledge of the members of the two language communities which makes the translator reject the formal equivalent in favour of the more explicit or familiar variant. The reader of the English original will usually need no explanation concerning the meaning of such terms as «the American Revolution», «the Reconstruction» or «the Emancipation Proclamation» which refer to the familiar facts of the US history. In the Russian translation, however, these terms are usually not replaced by their pseudointernational equivalents. Instead, use is made of the descriptive terms better known to the Russian reader:

The American Revolution was a close parallel to the wars of national liberation in the colonial and semi-colonial countries.

Война за независимость в Америке была прямым прототипом национально-освободительных войн в колониальных и полуколониальных странах.

This counter-revolutionary organization was set up to suppress the Negro - poor white alliance that sought to bring democracy in the South in the Reconstruction period.

Эта контрреволюционная организация была создана для подавления совместной борьбы нефов и белых бедняков, которые добивались установления демократии на юге после отмены рабства.

The Senator knew Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation by heart.

Сенатор знал наизусть провозглашенную Линкольном декларацию об отмене рабства. [3, p. 66]

With the knowledge of, and due regard to, these factors, the translator stands a good chance of making the pseudointernational words his good friends and allies.

2.3 Translation of cultures and political terms

The structural peculiarities of the language are the main factors that show us the worldview and the culture of the native speakers. The very famous American linguistic theorist B. Jofr wrote that «the native speakers of different languages perceive different facts and phenomena in the different ways because they are expressed differently in each peculiar language». [14, p. 87] For interpreters it is important to know that «the grammatical structures of the language (unlike the lexical structure) predetermine the aspects of the thing or phenomenon this language expresses». For example in the Russian sentence «я нанял работницу» we can see the sex of the employer and the employee, and the tense of this action. However it is impossible in the English sentence «I hired a worker», here the tense of acting must be defined by choosing a tense form of a verb - hired or has hired. In the simple example «Я нанял работницу» we can clearly see that the grammatical forms have a great impact on the semantic structure of the phrase.

As one of the famous modern linguists of Russian origin N. Jacobson emphasized: «the native speaker concentrate their attention on the aspects which are necessary for word-coding of their native language». [8, p. 79] It makes a lot of difficulties for translating from one language into another when there is a range of definite words in one of the languages and there are no such words in the other or vice verse. So in the Russian language there are no articles and compound tenses of the verb but in the English language there are no case endings and verbal prefixes as in Russian.В русском языке английский артикль заменяется такими словами, как

In the Russian languages English articles are usually translated as

«один» or «тот»:

Тот мужчина, который только что вошел, - ее брат.

The man who just came in is her brother.

Один его друг сказал мне это.

A friend of his told me that.

The native speakers of Russian name the range of things by the same word, however in English the words are different. In the English language foe instance there are several naming units for each part of the thing that in Russian it is only one word: рука consists of hand and arm (рука от плеча до кисти); нога - of leg and foot (ступня до щиколотки); пальцы на руках - fingers, а на ногах - toes.

On the other hand, there no words in the English language to show the difference between свекровь and теща, and both these notions are translated just as mother-in-law. The same with verbs жениться and выйти замуж: they are translated in the same way - to marry.

When the unique phenomena in the culture are translated into another language verbally there can be grammatical mistakes or just incorrect phrases. The struggle for detente and friendship among nations got a considerable support was published in the Moscow News February 5, 1989. Or other sentence:

По праздникам и воскресеньям мой муж работает в гараже. [19, p. 56]

To translate the last to words as In a garage - means to receive impression that husband of this woman on output and holiday works up in some garage, but meantime she bears in mind that at free time her husband is busy with his machine in their garage.

The more specific and unique this or that phenomenon on the source language the more difficult is to decide the problems the famous American translator R. Lurie considered chooing «equivalents of cultural realia». The translator loses his courage when he sees such words as коммуналка knowing that he has to translate it as communal apartment. He is ready to lose all verbal associations of this Russian word - this not pure Russian word «коммун» as in the word коммунист is softened by the suffix - ка which shows the meaning of some sad feeling of devotion. The English term communal apartment puts in remembrance a kitchen in the town of Berkley, California, where a band of hippie enjoys cooking some rise for vegetarian lunch while the Russian word коммуналка recalls in memory a lot of big rooms coloured in a gloomy brown colour, the whole family lives in each room, they have a very small stuffy kitchen because you cannot say what you want you or you has just done it.

The same thing Shweicer emphasized in his theoretical works: «Translation is not only intercommunication between languages but also between cultures… The process of translation «crosses» not only the edge of the language but also the edge of cultures». [18, p. 66]

A good example of such mutual misunderstanding serves the experience of an American professor, he spoke Japanese perfectly. At the time of mass student disorders in Japan he was in one of its towns at the meeting in the university. They discussed what to do with this situation. When the teacher haму finished the main point of the agenda the American thought that the consensus was reached and told this Japanese colleague about this. «Yes, yes, you are right» answered he, «However you are mistaken. The decision was right the opposite you thought. You have understood all the words in the right way but you haven't understood the pauses between them». Achieving its apogee at soviet period, problem intercultural communication still creates to difficulties and in Russian-American relations. In its эссе about semantics of such problems American psycholinguist E. Glenn brings for illustration interesting example:

The frequent use of the word or notion «неправильное» by the representatives of the USSR created the impression for English diplomats that their Russian patners were obstinate and pragmatic. On the other hand the American prescription that it is necessary to look at both sides of the question was expained by the Soviet people as an attempt to take an iindirect postion or to hide the real intentions. Without explaining Gegel's philosophy the interpretes said to the audience we disagree or jus no in stead of that's wrong or that's incorrect. Simply saying they just retold the Soviet position in the west cultural linguistic terms.

However knowledge of the language and culture of some people and personal attitude to them are the two different layers in the mind of an interpreter and ha has to divide them in his work. This is especially necessary during the diplomatic negotiations. Sometimes the interpreter works for one party on the negotiations but he sympathizes the other one. However he has no right to say his own opinion while interpreting one or the other party and also to tell proprietary information to no party.

In order to realize its professional mission an interpreter from Russian into English should not only be aware of their way of living, political situation and philosophy but also know their cultural realia. First these are such notions that do not exist in west and to which there are no English equivalents. For example the words «субботник» and «застолье» bewildered the majority of American translators and interpreters. Besides there exist a lot of phenomena to which there are equivalents in both cultures but they can be used in different contexts. One of such notions is «пафос созидания». It would not be clear to an American without detailed commentaries. When saying «идеализм» a Russian speaker usually means philosophy which is opposite to American materialism, but an American means the priority of high ideals over practical considerations.

The Russian лимонад turns out to be not the same as lemonade in America where it is not aerated water with some sugar and lemon juice (in Russian there exist two types of lemonade both aerated and not).

To translate both this words at the same way means to name Chinese «рис» English «хлеб». For Russian citizen «общественная жизнь» means different activities of social and state life while in America according to an expression of one Russian interpreter social life means any relationships with people including visiting theatres and restaurants. The Russian phrase «общественная работа» strongly differs from an American social work, which mainly means charity sponsored be local authorities.

In a number of features of Russian culture establishments cost also and services for which there are no faultless analogues in the English-speaking West and which cause to search for roundabout ways for translation. However it sometimes gives to a simultaneous interpreter an opportunity not only to extend, but also to reduce phrases. To transfer sense of the sentence «Они решили пожениться, и пошли в ЗАГС», in stead of saying Registration Bureau or Palace of Weddings reformulate the main sense: they took out a marriage license, they signed the register, or just say they got married. It is needless to say, that not all specific in Russian culture is a subject to by all means pedantic explanation.

«Он получил путевку в дом отдыха» - Не got a voucher for his vacation trip/center.

Rest home is, as N. Strelkova emphasized, «учреждение для пожилых людей или для больных, как дорогое заведение для людей, которые восстанавливают силы после длительной болезни» in America [19, p. 107]. If an interpreter does not have enough time, it is possible to omit some words. He can just say: Не went off on vacation. The English variant of the sentence «Мы долго стояли в очереди на квартиру» took place in the history of ill-translations: We stood on line for a long time for an apartment. At listeners the impression as if someone long stood in a queue in the street in hope was made to receive an apartment. Adequate translation would be, certainly: For a long time we were on a waiting list.

Without the authentic and preliminary analysis of realities it is impossible to interpret quickly them in English. A woman saying:

«У нас две комнаты и общая кухня с соседями»,

does not matter a common kitchen. Otherwise they appear an ambidextrous phrase as common may mean «простой, вульгарный». In English it should be like this:

We share the kitchen with the other people in our communal apartment.

«Соседи» - is also the false friend of translator as for English-speaking the word neighbors means the people living not in different rooms of same apartments, and in separate apartments (or houses), being beside or nearby from each other. In the first years of reorganization during one of greater space bridges «USSR-USA» where problems of both countries were compared, the Soviet doctor has complained, that «у нас низкая культура противозачаточных средств». In this saying the last three words were translated as The culture of contraceptives, that sounds very unusual in English as these «means» can not have there own «culture». The orator meant bad quality of contraceptive means and lack of knowledge of them. As a result - in a populous American audience there was bewilderment because of translation which should sound absolutely differently: Our problems with birth control devices.

Such word as «коллектив» also needs some explanation. When you say: «коллектив нашей школы» in can be, depending upon a context a class or a sports team; «коллектив нашего института» - the staff, and «коллектив нашего завода» - the employees. Otherwise the word «коллектив» has so many meanings that it can be group, personnel, staff, colleagues, co-workers или associates. And similar realities make long enough number for G.V. Chernov's which part offers descriptive translations:

рабочий поселок - industrial settlement, workers' community

стаж - seniority, period of service

детская консультация - child welfare center

медалист - honor student

вредная профессия - hazardous occupation

поликлиника - health center, outpatient clinic

ЗАГС - civil registry office

курсы повышения квалификации - refresher courses, advanced training courses

субботник - an unpaid/weekend/stint/volunteer effort/community effort/donation of a day's work [2, p. 68]

Needless to say, that translation listed above the phenomena assumes, that they are already rethought and expressed in English directly or by explanations:

Они пили чай из пиалок.

They drank tea from small china cups with no handles/small Central Asian china teacups.

In the rare cases when the interpreter has got enough time he can say a Russian word and give a description to it in English:

They drank tea from pialki, Central Asian china teacups with no handles.

The other word that means nothing to an American is «автореферат». In can also be explained in English:

«Он объяснял эти идеи в своем автореферате» - Не explained these ideas in his автореферат, the published summary of this thesis/dissertation.

L. Chernyakhovskay gives some interesting examples in her works on English syntax:

Они надеются, что недалек тот день, когда в стране будут открыты крупные залежи.

They hope that-large deposits will soon be discovered in Kazakhstan.

This phrase is taken from performance in an audience where to listeners it is absolutely clear, that the orator speaks about Kazakhstan. As if to the receiver the name of concrete republic is perceived by them easier and more clearly, than a word «страна». «Недалек тот день» can be translated word be word the day is not far off that, but the English translation should be much simpler. L. Chernyakhovskay suggests they hope eventually to discover But the shortest and the closest to the word «недалек», that is in the final translation is an English word soon. [8, p. 69]

Or another example:

22 июня он ушел добровольцем на фронт.

On June 22, the day Nazi Germany attacked, he went to/volunteered for the front. [19, p. 96]

In this sentence the decision of an interpreter how to translate the sense of the phrase depends upon his audience. If the people are historians he should not add on the day Nazi Germany attacked. However he can not say just On June 22 to the American farmers because it means to lose the main idea of the speaker. At the same way it is possible to change pure Russian terms on the terms that more frequently occur in the west countries: especially «Великая Отечественная война» is translated as World War II.

Changing the sense of realias is necessary not only when speaking about the historical events.

Наши курорты функционируют круглый год.

Our health resorts are/stay open all year round/year round.

Our resorts function the whole year, - this word by word translation sounds bad in English

Эти три года дали нам главное, что необходимо для молодых людей - поле для активной деятельности.

These three years gave us what (the) young people needed most/what was most important for young people, a chance to do big/important/great things/to build the country/to make full use of their abilities/gave young people a chance to work and grow.

A word by word translation: a field for active activity with the repetition of active sounds ridiculously in English. Expressions which are absolutely normally perceived by Russian listeners, can seem English-speaking grandiose or rather strange. And for elimination of such stylistic distinctions in perception of Russian realities the translator in essence should семантически reinterpret each concept, which nonequivalent English. Otherwise «false friends» turn for the translator to traps where it is possible to get continually, especially translating word by word. Here are some translator's false friends that occur frequently and make a mess for an interpreter:

Аргумент, артист

авантюра

декада

декорации

диверсия

экономный фальшивый характер

характеристика

конкретный

курьезный

манифестация

митинг

момент

нормально

оперативный

пафос

персонаж

перспективный

поэма

претендовать: Он претендовал своего соседа

адресный (адресные рекомендации, санкции)

targeted, specific

topical, pressing, relevant, immediate,

important

reasons, convictions (not disagreement)

any performing artist

a shady or risky undertaking

ten days, not ten years

stage sets

military diversionary tactic, subversion,

sabotage

thrifty, frugal, practical

artificial, forged, imitation, counterfeit

nature, disposition (a character in a work of

literature is а персонаж)

description, a letter of recommendation

actual, specific, positive, definite

amusing, odd, intriguing, funny

public mass demonstration

mass public demonstration, rally (never a

get-together of a few people)

period of time, element, point, aspect (один

из моментов его выступления)

well, properly (он вел себя нормально)

effective, quick, practical, current, timely

excitement, inspiration, enthusiasm, emotion,

thrill

character in a literary work

promising, future, long-range

a long epic poem, not short verses (стихи)

metaphorically - something wonderful:

этот торт - поэма

на имущество lay claim to, have pretensions to:

nice, pleasant, sweet

title for the nobility (e.g. duke, count)

crude, shameless, ruthless, amoral [19, p. 136]

From the list of words given above it becomes clear how the cultural realia differ from each other and how it is difficult to find the right equivalent.

Political terms

In early years and also today Russian there are a lot of political terms that while being translating becomes «false translator's friends». Let's consider for example this seemingly monosemantic notions: «революция» and revolution. In Russian this word means something radical, progressive otherwise positive changes. In English it may mean progressive and also conservative event or phenomenon. That is why such sentence as Revolutions are a common occurrence in Latin America may be translated into Russian negatively: «Государственные перевороты - обычное явление в Латинской Америке».


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