The types of interpreting

«Эксплуатация» and exploitation may also be interchangeable. So «эксплуатация угнетенного народа или этнического меньшинства» is clearly different from «эксплуатации минеральных ресурсов». Many other political terms in the course of translation can also change its original emotional coloring. «Круги» in the meaning of circles in Russian often had negative shade. They happened to be more often bourgeois and capitalistic than official and business. In the sentence «Эти круги делают ставку на безудержную гонку вооружений» the account oа action is surely in the negative sense. That is why English circles is not always the most suitable word for translation of the word: quarters, sections, community, forces, elite or other synonyms can be more suitable.

Это предложение не встретило сочувственного отклика в официальных кругах.

This proposal did not find favor in official quarters.

деловые круги - business circles (neutral)

международные научные круги - the international scientific community

правящие круги - the ruling elite, officialdom, power circles, policy makers

For the words «общественный», «государственный» and «публичный» is not always suitable the English words social, state and public. Государственная библиотека is state library, when the speaker means Московская Государственная Библиотека, but public library, if the speaker means some local library. «Общественное мнение» is public opinion, but in the USA «государственный сектор» - is public or government sector, to that private (частный) sector is opposition. «Общественный деятель» is not translated as social or public worker, but as someone active in local or community affairs or public figure; in America such person may be translated also as philanthropist, i.d. a person who makes his contributions into charity.

When there is no equivalent in English for this or another Russian socio-political phenomenon this notion can be described transferred into neologism or just transliterated.

The choice of the word is as a rule defined by the context: «служащие» is not always employees or white-collar workers; «отсутствие безработицы» - lack of unemployment or mostly antonymous full employment. If the Russian word is well-known for English speakers the interpreter can just say it without any translation, e.g.: kolkhoz, in stead of collective farm. If the word is not wide spread as «область», it is translated into English as oblast' or region.

The special attention and carefulness is necessary for translating into English the American terms that have already become Russian neologisms. For example when the Russian delegate speaks about American «Minister of Defense», this rank is called Secretary of Defense, and «Minister of Justice» - the Attorney General. «Политика поощрения / продвижения национальных меньшинств», is as a rule translated as Affirmative Action. As for the Russian political terms which are completely absent in the English language it is necessary to provide a descriptive explanation to them: «наказ» means instructions or requests from voters to an elected official, and «секвестр» - budget cuts.

Description, transliteration and other fake language equivalents came into using under the forming of vocabulary of Gorbachev's perestroika. At the end of 80-es American newspapers wrote about openness and restructuring; but in some years «гласность» and «перестройка» steadily came into English and have not been translated. It is clear that such terms as «выводиловка» - (juggling or padding figures and statistics) or «администрирование» (the abuse of administrative power or author-itarianism) still need to be explained.

Here is an example of translation where to avoid or for word translation of a political sentence a list of different professions connected with political affairs was omitted.

Советский комитет защиты мира, являясь самой массовой неправительственной организацией, объединяет в своих рядах десятки миллионов людей - рабочих, крестьян, представителей интеллигенции, ученых, художников, артистов, религиозных деятелей, ветеранов войны, молодежь.

In verbal translation that was an ordinary thing in the soviet English press it was:

The Soviet Committee for the Protection of Peace, being the most mass Soviet nongovernmental organization, united and its ranks tens of millions of people. [23]

So the long list of soviet professions is shortened in the English version of a sentence however some necessaries are left. Under the careful analysis of this phrase it becomes clear that the first four words can be shortened to three: The Soviet Peace Committee. The word «являясь» does not mean being, but as and can be omitted. The phrase «самая массовая» we can simplify as it means biggest or largest. «Объединяет в своих рядах» we can condensate in brings together or unites. Tens and dozens sound more idiomatically in English than tens of millions. But are they necessary? The sense of this sentence is that many people are involved in the activity of peace protection. As a result the final version is more simple and brief:

The Soviet Peace Committee, the largest Soviet nongovernmental organization, brings together millions of people.

In the original Russian sentence there were 34 syllables, verbal translation consists of 44 ones and the final version has 33. That is why the final version sounds more idiomatically in English and loses 11 syllables. It saves a lot of time for an interpreter especially in such cases when the speaker speaks too fast.

Besides evident necessaries in the phrase about the Peace Committee there are some semantic ways for condensation. So the word combination from 11 syllables «представители интеллигенции» is shortened to: intellectuals. «Ученые» - is a wider notion than English scientists. How to translate it properly? Scholars - is possible but not precise variant. That is why the most suitable word here is academics - a notion that includes everybody who teach or make researches. As for «художников» it is possible to name them painters, but if the speaker is saying about «артисты», than there is a notion performing artists. «Религиозные деятели» (10 syllables) are easily translated to the clergy (3 syllables).

The notion «собеседник», ever-present in the Russian language, is a very big difficulty for interpreters. The word interlocutor does not sound good as its equivalent. What to do in such case? An interpreter first can say the other party, the other side or the name or rank of this person:

Как я сказал моему собеседнику… As I said to Mr. Ivanov/the Director…

Secondly it is possible to use a pronoun:

As I said to him/her/them

At last at some cases the word «собеседник» is omitted:

Я несколько раз подчеркивал моему собеседнику, что,… I repeatedly made the point that… I emphasized several times that…

In the soviet political and economical vocabulary there is a plenty of military words:

«арсеналы средств», «вахта мира», «борьба за производительность труда», «новый фронт в промышленности», «ударный труд».

борьба за производительность труда - labor efficiency campaign боеспособность efficiency, readiness

борьба за первое место - competition for first place

Tough in English there is a set range of «military» metaphors they are inconsiderable in number and they are not horrible to ear. An American essay-writer Susan Sontag has emphasized the usage of military metaphors at description of some different diseases, especially cancer: tumors invade, cells are bombarded with rays. «Болезнь рассматривается здесь как вторжение чужих организмов, а тело реагирует на них тем, что мобилизует свои, военные силы, т.е. immunological defenses; курс лечения - aggressive, например, когда говорят о химиотерапии» [1, p. 198]. In other context it should be said the battle for survival, conquest of space, going great guns, war of nerves, bite the bullet. However such expression sounds much more colloquial, than Russian military lexicon. When meeting with her English translator in operation happens to search for «peace» equivalents:

Вы приехали сюда после жарких дебатов, вооруженные наказами своих избирателей.

You've come here bearing/bringing/with/encouraged by/backed by instruc-tions/requests of your voters/constituents.

Even at analysis Russian text, in which is spoken about war, sometimes happens to resort to decryption:

Великая победа над гитлеровским фашизмом, имеющая всемирно-историческое значение, - наше общее достояние, и одержана она была общими усилиями народов и армий стран антигитлеровской коалиции, партизан, бойцов движения Сопротивления, антифашистов, демократов и патриотов, миллионов борцов за свободу.

Hitlerite (in no circumstances Hitler's!) the word «гитлеровский» is sometimes used for the translation however in the West it often said as Nazi. The first part of the phrase can be translated simplier - the historic victory over Fascism, omitting an adjective Hitlerite as it repeats the notion Fascism. «Имеющую» should not be translated as a verb but of historic (not historical) sig-nificance.

But the verb should take place in this sentence because it is meant for a dash between the words «значение» and «наше»: the great victory… is our common/shared legacy/heritage and was won/gained by the joint efforts of the peoples and the armies of (the countries of) the antihitlerite coalition. The same sense can be expressed in a shorter way: The war was won by… The phrase «бойцов движения Сопротивления» is easily translated as the Resistance или the resistance movement; millions of freedom fighters in are shorter than millions of fighters for freedom. If an interpreter is in a hurry, he can shorten the list of people struggling against Fascism to antifascists and freedom fighters:

The historic victory over the Nazis is our common/shared legacy/heritage and was won by the peoples and armies of the anti-fascist coalition, partisans, the Resistance movement, antifascists, (democrats and patriots) and millions of freedom fighters. [6, p. 156]

Certainly, need in softening russian-language «military» or «aggressive» terminology appears far from always. This is done only then, when «translatable» does not approach to contents English text. Otherwise, verbal arsenal of the political vestment not only is not weakened, but, on the contrary, is consciously emphasized by means of not stronger equivalent:

Ничего они не жалеют, чтобы поддержать режим своих ставленников…, совершающих кровавые преступления против этого маленького народа.

2.4 Translation of verbs and adverbial modifiers of time

The Russian verbs with their limited tense system and two types of verbs - perfective and imperfective aspects - with their prefixes, impersonal aspect, participle and adverbial participle constructions are usually a puzzle for simultaneous interpreters. The problem is that the present, past and future tenses of Russian verbs while being translated into English do not show the tense of actions. There are no exact equivalents in English for the different aspects of Russian verbs. As a result an interpreter has to choose an English verb carefully, especially choosing between simple or compound tenses.

Here are some examples of incorrect usage of English tenses and constructions made by TASS.

For many centuries now, Spaniards are living without paying attention to what is happening beyond their country.

This is a successor to the association which was active for nearly a decade recently.

The play was banned from being performed at the Taganka.

We were recommended to spend our holidays in the mountains. [19, p. 226]

There is a big temptation for simultaneous interpreters. It is to translate the Russian verb in the simple, not compound tense. It happens because Russian verbs do not have compound tense.

Социалистическая Республика Вьетнам, героически перенесшая все тяготы многолетней и суровой войны, теперь мужественно отстаивает свой суверенитет.

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam, which heroically bore the burdens of a terrible war which raged for years, is now courageously defending its sovereignty.

And here is an example of changing tense. The translation of the sentence «Вы меня раздражаете» depends upon a context. If you annoy the speaker every day you can say: You annoy/irritate me. But if you are doing it only at this moment and usually your behavior is good you should say: You are irritating/annoying me.

In the Russian language a verb can be repeated in the past tense as well as in present for emphasizing some constantly continuing action. The verbal translation of this continuation into English with repeating the past and present tenses sounds at least ridiculously. Руку is an example of such translation:

Мы поддерживаем и будем поддерживать прифронтовые государства Африки в их усилиях по достижению урегулирования этого вопроса.

We support and will support the front-line African states.

It sounds bad. This variant is much betterе:

We have always supported the front-line states.

We are continuing to support the front-line states. We shall continue to support the front-line states. [23]

We can replace the verb by a noun:

We shall continue our support for the front-line states.

«Военная угроза» is better to translate as threat of war but not as military threat. (the same with «военное эмбарго», it is usually arms embargo, but not military embargo.) «Направление» should not be translated in this sentence: aimed at or designed to does not make an additional sense.

The Russian construction with the combination of past and present tenses of imperfective aspect can be translated into English by one compound tense:

Мы никогда не искали и не ищем себе выгод - будь то экономические, политические или иные.

We have never sought profits/advantages for ourselves - be they economic, political, or any other kind.

Have never shows Russian but the present and past tenses: «не искали и не ищем».

The combination of present and past tenses of imperfective aspect is often translated by the verb to continue:

Мы предлагали и предлагаем договориться о полном запрещении ядерного оружия.

We are continuing to propose/continue to propose/continue to favor/we have always favored/always proposed agreement on a total nuclear weapons test ban.

An imperfective aspect of Russian verbs usually emphasizes the process but not the end of an action and can be in the same sentence in the future tense as well. For this phenomenon there are some definite constructions in English:

Мы выступали и будем выступать в их поддержку.

We shall continue to support them.

This sounds better than:

We have always supported them.

The Russian verbs of the present or past tenses that are repeated with a dash can be translated as: keep + verb, and like this:

Я иду-иду, уже сил нет, а все еще далеко до места.

I keep/kept on going, but it is/was still a long distance to/far to that place…

On I went/I walked and walked, but…

Or:

Он смотрел-смотрел, никак не мог разглядеть.

Не kept on looking but/No matter how he looked he could not make it out.

The so called «the false future tense» and «the false past tense» can be translated by the words «впредь», «прежде» и «по-прежнему», however in English it is necessary to search for «past» or «future» for expressing the sense of the action in the future, earlier or formerly. However in such constructions the perfective aspect of a verb shows the continuation of a process but not the end of it.

Мы будем и впредь совместно с другими странами действовать в интересах оздоровления международных отношений.

We shall continue to act/work with the other countries to improve international relations.

«В интересах» should not be translated here: it does not add any sense but breaks an idiom.

Or:

Мы будем, как и прежде, содействовать выполнению этой организацией ее миссии.

We will continue to encourage this organization to carry out its mission/in carrying out its mission.

Or:

Расисты по-прежнему продолжают незаконную оккупацию этой территории.

The racists are continuing/have not ceased/are going on with/are carrying on with the illegal occupation of this territory. [17, p. 287]

In some English phrases the infinitive is expressed be the future simple tense of the verb:

Дети есть дети. Children will be children.

The English present tense plays more specific role. It is necessary for a Russian subordinate clause with the verb in subjunctive mood.

Если завтра будет хорошая погода, мы пойдем гулять. If the weather is good tomorrow, we'll go for a walk.

Случись так, что расходы превысят доходы…

If expenditures exceed revenue/income/if expenditures should exceed revenue/income…

In English grammar the Russian sequence of tenses can be changed in such cases when imperative mood in singular form is used in conditional tense:

Приди я вовремя, ничего бы не случилось.

If I had come in time nothing would have happened.

This aspect can mean that the speaker obtests or has to act undesirably:

Тебе хорошо с гостями чаи распивать, а я дома сиди.

You're having fun drinking tea with the guests while/but I've got to stay home.

Сами гулять пойдете, а я пиши.

Go off on your own, I've got to write/I'm stuck with the writing.

Third importance of this form of the verb - unexpected or not deliberate action:

Он меня позвал - я споткнись, чашку разбил. Не called to me and I stumbled and broke a cup.

Дорога ровная - а он возьми и упади.

The road was flat/even when all of a sudden he fell.

The present tense of Russian is sometimes translated by the future simple tense:

Я уезжаю через неделю, завтра я весь день работаю, а вечером сижу дома.

I'm leaving in a week - tomorrow I'll work/I'm working all day and in the evening I'll be home.

In its perfective aspect Russian verb expressing continuing action is translated into English by the present continuous tense:

Сегодня мне весь день мешают - то кто-нибудь придет, то телефон зазвонит.

I'm being bothered all day - people keep coming in and the phone keeps ringing.

For description of usual man's behavior in the Russian texts sometimes a whole range of verbs is used.

Он всегда прибежит, накричит, наскандалит, а лотом удивляется: почему его не любят?

He's always barging in/rushing in screaming/yelling at someone/causing trouble/insulting people/offending people/raising a row and then he wonders why/is surprised that/and then he asks why people don't like him.

In some colloquial phrases an interpreter has to translate the past tense of the verbs «пойти» and «поехать» by the future tense of an English verb:

Я пошел. I'm about to leave.

Я поехал, буду через два часа. I'm off/I'll be going/I'll be back in two hours.

Gerunds are shorter and more idiomatical in English:

Мы начали вечер с того, что предложили всем потанцевать.

We started the party/evening by suggesting/with the suggestion that everyone dance.

Он начал с того, что лично познакомился со всеми.

Не began by introducing himself to everyone/by getting personally acquainted

with everyone. [18, p. 231]

Sometimes «чтобы» is not translated and the tense of verb is defined by the context:

Я не видел, чтобы он чистил зубы.

I didn't see him brush his teeth/I never saw him brush his teeth.

Я хочу, чтобы вы меня правильно поняли.

I want you to understand me correctly/to get what I mean.

In stead of an awkward phrase in order to or so as to, «чтобы» we can translate to + infinitive.

Я вернулся с тем, чтобы предупредить вас. I came back to warn you.

Я пришел не с тем, чтобы спорить с вами. I didn't come to argue with you.

Sometimes the word «чтобы» is translated as so that:

Говори, чтобы все поняли.

Speak so that everyone understands/gets the point.

The dependant clauses beginning with «как» or с «как бы» can be translated by the subjunctive mood of a gerund:

Я люблю смотреть, как он выступает.

I like watching him perform/I like to watch him perform/I like watching him

performing.

Он боялся, как бы не простудиться.

Не was afraid of catching cold/He was afraid he might/could catch cold.

«He + инфинитив + бы» requires don't or see that X doesn't do Y.

He простудиться бы!

Take care/I'll take care not to/See that you don't catch cold.

He забыть бы его адрес!

See you don't/take care not to/be sure you don't/I mustn't/I must take care not to forget his address.

«He забыть» or «не забывать»? Here type of the verb at translation can and not to play solving dug. Same pertains and to some other example. Finally, «он это говорил» и «он это сказал» is it often translated on English equally. But as a whole row of the events deal is otherwise. Visualize that you translator on international conference, where delegates are interested, as it is realized that or other taking them resolution. And here is one of they speak: «Мы две недели решали эту задачу» and another speaks: «Мы вчера решили эту задачу». The difference between these two offers is extremely important for being present, ибо first him not clear, is solved problem, but is afterwards realized that she behind already. Classical examples of such difference is: «Колумб был счастлив, не когда он открыл Америку, а когда он ее открывал». Or: «Он умирал две недели, очень мучился, а умер вчера вечером». Ambiguity of type of the verb is well seen in both examples as indicator of the terminated action. In English this is expressed simple and complex time: while Columbus was discovering America, he was dying for two weeks. Linguist Ketford brings such example:

Что же делал Бельтов в продолжение этих десяти лет? Все или почти все. Что он сделал? Ничего или почти ничего.

What did Beltov do during these ten years? Everything or almost everything. What did he achieve? Nothing, or almost nothing. [4, p. 56]

Moreover, one more circumstance is important. Translator must constantly bear in mind that in English are used absolutely different verbs for issue of the sense of both members one Russian aspectual pairs, as, for instance, «сделать» or «делать». What did he succeed in doing? Sounds badly and longer than What did he achieve?

Here are more examples of such pairs of words: «сдавать / сдать экзамен» (to take/pass an exam) or «поступать / поступить в университет» (to apply to/be admitted or get into a university). In like events at translation verb imperfect type it is impossible not to emphasize that the question is attempt speaking or someone other anything do.

Войска брали крепость целый месяц.

The troops tried for a whole month to take the fortress.

Я к нему долго привыкал, но наконец привык.

For a long time I tried to get used to him, and finally did.

He оправдывайся!

Don't try to justify yourselfl/Don't try to make excuses!

There exists also aiming category person verb: beside them imperfect type points to condition, which is from terminated actions and is sent made by type.

Я «понимаю» is the result of «я понял», and note that English «I understand» translates them both. The formal pair «разобраться / разбираться» is exactly the same; the verb in «я разобрался в этом» is an achievement with the change-of-state meaning characteristic of perfectives, while the verb in «я разбираюсь в этом» signals the state resulting from the achievement. They may both be translated as understand, but the former means / have figured out (come to under-stand), while the latter means I understand far a result of having figured out. These verbs belong to a very large group of perfectives whose change of state is inceptive, whose imperfectives denote the new, resulting state: «понял, понимаю, поверил, верю, понравиться, нравиться». [19, p. 312]

Hard and labor consuming is for translation and faceless designs, since they're often happen to reconstruct. For example, «Здесь не курят» should not be translated word by word. We can say: Smoking is/not allowed/forbidden here or No smoking.

Посетителей просят оставить верхнюю одежду в гардеробе.

Visitors are requested/asked to leave/Visitors must leave/check their coats in the coatroom.

We can insert the subject:

Об этом часто приходится слышать. I/he/we/they often hear about this.

Чувствовалось, что он доволен.

I/we/they felt/could feel that he was pleased.

In some context revocable verbs are translated as connecting with accompaniment subjecting to:

Под вакуумом понимается пространство, не содержащее вещества. A vacuum is defined as space/By a vacuum we mean space/The definition of a vacuum is space/A vacuum is understood to be space free from/not containing/devoid of matter.

В данном случае сложное движение рассматривается как результат двух движений.

In this case complex movement is considered as/considered to be/we see complex movement as/we define complex movement as the result of two movements.

When Russian pronoun is an addition faceless verb, it is possible to remake in subject to/subject. Translator to account that or other tenses realizes these conversions, but do not require the person of the voltage. However, aiming category of the similar expressions so known that is converted nearly instinctive.

«Меня знобит» - / am feverish.

В ушах звенело, во рту пересохло.

His/my ears were ringing, his/my throat was dry.

Меня неудержимо клонило в сон.

I felt an irresistible urge to sleep/1 just couldn't stay awake/I felt horribly/terribly/awfully sleepy.

Ее потянуло в Париж.

She felt an urge to go to Paris/Paris was calling to her/She felt like going to Paris.

Мне жаль мою подругу. I'm sorry for my girlfriend. Ho:

Мне жаль потерянного времени.

I regret/begrudge the time lost/wasted. [19, p. 345]

Both in Russia, and in USA future translator else on student pew teaches that active participle persisting time is always translated on English verbal form to - ing. It is right but a bit pragmatically. Of course, «девушка, читающая книгу, очень красива» is The girl who is reading the book is very pretty. But same can be said by translator with gap of the participle that is to say by means of short turn with pretext and short dependent clause that allows to spare variety of slab, but signifies much time.

Группа, имеющая такие блестящие результаты, является гордостью нашего института.

The group with such outstanding results is the pride of our institute.

Вопрос, выходящий за рамки данной статьи.

A matter/issue/question beyond the scope of this article.

The reflexive particle is usually translated with a preposition:

Строящийся завод является одним из новейших в стране.

The factory under construction is one of the newest in the country.

«Принадлежащий» можно выразить просто притяжательной формой прилагательного:

Книга, принадлежащая ей. Her book.

The passive participial turns persisting time are translated with the Russian language sooner as adjective, than as participles.

Проводимая страной политика одобряется всем народом.

The policy pursued (not «which is being pursued») by our country has the backing/approval of the entire people.

In some cases the participle can be omitted:

Ясно определились позиции, занимаемые обеими сторонами по таким жизненно важным вопросам.

The positions of both sides on such vitally important questions are now clear.

The participles «имеющийся», «сложившийся», «создавшийся», which are mostly used in a political vocabulary can also be omitted:

Нам нужно вскрывать имеющиеся резервы.

We need to exploit the available reserves/the reserves at our disposal/the existing reserves.

Сложившаяся ситуация требует укрепления существующей правовой основы.

The present/today's/this situation requires a strengthening of the existing legal basis.

Необходимо на все 100% использовать сложившиеся благоприятные условия. 100% use must be made of today's/present/existing conditions.

Sometimes «сложившийся» or «создавшийся» are the synonyms of this.

В создавшейся обстановке наш комитет должен выполнить свой долг. In this situation our committee must do its duty.

В «назревших проблемах» можно первое слово перевести как longstand-ing/pressing problems/issues.

The adverbial participles make a lot of difficulties for interpreter. Here are two examples from Moscow:

News, где в одном случае деепричастием просто злоупотребляют, а в другом - пренебрегают им даже тогда, когда оно требуется в английском:

Every country must build its own economy based on its own ideas rather than copying foreign technological developments.

Many of us have hundreds of times experienced the need for a reference book and the utter impossibility to find one.

The past tense from Russian is translated into English as an adverbial participle.

Мы видели, как дети купались в реке. We saw the children swimming in the river.

А русское деепричастие настоящего времени подчас приходится переводить на английский прошедшим:

Раза два в год бывал в Москве и, возвращаясь оттуда, рассказывал об этом. Не would visit/used to visit Moscow a couple of times a year, and after returning home/on his return home tell/would tell about it.

An adverbial participle of the past tense can be translated in present:

Сев за рояль, она заиграла вальс. Sitting at the piano, she played a waltz.

While translating the Russian adverbial participle sometimes it is necessary to explain adverbial modifiers of time and cause:

Выслушав меня внимательно, вы быстро меня поймете. If you listen to me carefully, you'll understand quickly.

Почувствовав голод, они решили обедать без гостей.

Because/since they were hungry, they decided to eat without/without waiting for/the guests.

Переехав в собственную квартиру, он стал гораздо более самостоятельным человеком.

When/after he moved to his own apartment he became a lot more independent. [2, p. 134]

The adverbial modifiers of time make an interpreter to think over them. Even a beginning interpreter knows that «вчера вечером» is not translated yesterday in the evening, but last night. Here is an example of a seemingly simple sentence:

Центральная Америка как никогда нуждается в мирных условиях.

Central America needs peace as never before

It sounds badly. The word peace is better than peaceful conditions. Moreover more than ever or now, more than ever and just desperately needs peace, are surely preferable.

The phrase «в эти дни» is used very often and better be translated as now, today, at present, at this time, а не these days or during these days. «В последнее время» - is also a wide spread word-combination and should not be translated verbally: recently sounds more idiomatically in stead of in recent times

В последнее время, благодаря распространению спутниковой связи, большую популярность получили разного рода теле - и радиомосты.

Recently, thanks to increased/expanded satellite communications, various types of TV and radio spacebridges have become very popular.

Recently - is also possible for translating «на днях», however in the sentence like «Я видел его на днях», there is no information about the time of action. Too define it we need the context and the exact time of that period.

Буквально на днях был сделан очередной, крайне опасный шаг по обострению ситуации в Центральной Америке.

Just a few days ago yet one more/yet another very/extremely dangerous step was taken/move was made which aggravated/to aggravate the situation in Central America. [13, p. 98]

Adverbial modifier of time sometimes needs to be translated anonymously:

Выдвинут, и не сейчас, вопрос о сокращении военных бюджетов.

The question of reducing military budgets was put forward quite some time ago/a long time ago.

Otherwise the word combination «в свое время» is translated by the English compound tense showing that an hour, a day has already past.

Это идет вразрез с интересами длительного значения, которые в свое время были положены в основу данного соглашения.

This runs counter to/contravenes those long-range interests, which have been the basis for this agreement/had been the cornerstone of this agreement.

In the sentence where Russian verb is in the present tense but means the past tense the most important thing is to show the fact that the action has already happened.

Из года в год растет и ширится международная поддержка справедливой борьбы этого народа.

Year by year/The years have seen/Over the years/Every year there has been/we have seen the growth and expansion of international support for the just struggle/campaign of this people.

In the word-phrase «который + какой-то период времени» it is necessary to emphasise that the action was repeated in the past:

Однако противники ядерного разоружения уже который год твердят, что якобы не существует приемлемых условий для проведения переговоров.

How often/for how many years now have the opponents of nuclear disarmament asserted/claimed/propounded that the conditions for negotiations are unacceptable.

When there is a question about days of week, months, years and decades the word combination «уже не + период времени» can be translated as for many/ several X's now.

Уже не одно десятилетие эта страна продолжает игнорировать решения нашей организации.

For decades/for several decades now this country has been ignoring/has continued to ignore the decisions of our organization.

Уже много лет не сходит с повестки дня вопрос о выводе иностранных войск из этого района.

For years/many years now the issue/question/item of the withdrawal of foreign troops from this region has been/remained/stayed on our agenda.

In many adverbial modifiers of time «уже» should not be translated as already.

Вот уже сорок лет мы занимаемся обсуждением этого вопроса.

For almost/nearly/for some forty years (now) we have been discussing/have

been engaged in discussion of this question.

In the phrase where Russian verb in the present tense is not possible to translate in the same tense the compound past tense in English means «уже». When after «уже» and «еще» the precise date is pointed out they should be translated as: as long ago as, as far back as:

Уже в январе 1985 года обе стороны договорились о том, что целью их переговоров по ядерным и космическим вооружениям будет выработка эффективных договоренностей…

As long ago as/as far back as/back in January 1985 both sides agreed that the objective of their negotiations on nuclear and space weapons was to draw up/conclude effective agreements… [19, p. 375]

In the phrase given above the noun «выработка» is better translated by the verbs draw up or conclude, however «уже» has the same meaning as «еще». That is why in many contexts both conjunctions are translated in the same way. But when translating from English into Russian as long ago is translated as «еще»:

As long ago as 1841 a Royal Commission directed the attention of the British government to the advantage of establishing a decimal system of coinage.

Еще в 1841 году королевская комиссия указывала английскому правительству на преимущества введения десятичной системы денежного обращения.

«Еще» or «уже + дата» can be also translated as as early as:

Это было известно еще/уже в 1 91 0 году. This was known as early as/back in 1910.

In other contexts the equivalent for «еще/уже» is even:

Еще/уже ребенком он был выдающимся скрипачом. Even as a child he was a superb violinist.

«Давно наступила пора», - is said about the things that have existed for a long time

Давно наступила пора смыть позорное пятно, лежащее на совести человечества.

However The time has long been ripe is longer and more complicated than It is high time.

It is high time to erase/remove/dissolve that shameful stain/blot (the participle can and should be omitted, as in English stains and blots do not «lie») on the conscience of humanity/mankind.

The sense of the expression «назрела пора» is translated in the same way:

Давно назрела пора для четких рекомендаций по вопросу о сокращении военных бюджетов.

It is time for clear recommendations on the issue/question of reductions of/ reducing military budgets.

However it can be also said like this:

The question of reducing military budgets is a longstanding one/long overdue/has been with us for a long time.

There is one more possibility. It is an antonymous translation:

This question is hardly a new one/hardly new/hardly new to us.

But this peace of advice is better for a translator than interpreter who has too little time for difficult reconstructions of the oral speech.

Conclusion

Many lexical aspects of oral translation represent difficult problems for interpreters and they cause a lot of mistakes in translation.

The necessary part of the study of the diploma paper is the topicality. While examining lexical aspects of oral translation, we have come across a great flow of difficulties which appeare in the translation from one language into another because the translators do not take into the consideration different cultures and way of life of different people. These aspects are an important part for translation practice.

The main task of the study is to discover the difficulties in interpreting brought by some lexical aspects of different languages. We have investigated the lexical aspects of frequent occurrence, studied the difficulties of their translation, found out the borrowed words in the source languages and the ways of their rendering into the target ones, defined cultural peculiarities of English and Russian native speakers and others.

While studying the lexical aspects of interpreting, we have focused on the novelty of the paper. First of all, it is laid on the various lexical peculiarities of the English and Russian languages and the ways of translating them. Languages suffered many changes in the course of their development, which are closely connected with the culture of people, their social and political life. There appeared a lot of borrowings and neologisms and interpreters should borrow it in mind and take into account while translating.

The examination of these problems is made with the help of different methods such as the descriptive method, the comparative method, the translational method and the method of component analysis.

Due to these methods, we could also see the practical value of the paper. With the help of this material people studying English as the foreign language can see all aspects of the language and learn new patterns of it. Teachers can make use of the facts about the cultural realia and political terms and neologisms of the language. The interpreters can use this material as a reference source in their work.

The interpreter should keep in mind that words or concepts cannot be isolated from the cultural and social context in which the language resides. Therefore, social and cultural variables have important impact on the transfer of meanings from one language to another.

Dealing with these lexical difficulties the interpreter should know that knowing two languages is necessary but not sufficient to make one a competent translator or interpreter. A competent translator or interpreter must have been immersed in both cultures in order to appreciate the subtitles of the languages and be able to select codes with meanings closest to the meanings intended. The competent translator or interrupter must also be a good communicator with adequate knowledge of the subject matter being translated. The Translator should understand that many concepts have different connotations or different meanings all together in different cultures. When these are translated literally, they are likely to be misunderstood by the target text readers. When a concept is new to target text readers, many interpreters use word-for-word translation since there written word to express such concepts in the target language. Such translation, if done without definition target text, might render the text incomprehensible or misunderstood.

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