Borrowed words in the English language

There is a fundamental difference between formal equivalence, on the one hand, and semantic and pragmatic equivalece, on the other. Formal equivalence may accompany semantic and pragmatic equivalence but it is by no means mandatory.Adequate translation may be defined therefore as that which is determined by semantic and pragmatic equivalaence between the original and target-language text. Cases of formal equivalence without semantic or pragmatic equivalence are usually described as literal transletion. Literal translatin reproduces the linguistic form of the original regardless of semantic or pragmatic equivalence.

Free translation, on the other hand, consists in pragmatically unmotivated additions and ommissions of semantic information. In literal translation the translator distorts the message by slavishly reproducing the form while in free translation he distorts it by overstepping his authority and assuming the role of a co-author.

Grammatical and lexical parallelisms between the source language and the target language made it possible in some cases to retain formal equivalence without departing from pragmatic equivalence. Otherwise various lexico-grammatical transformations are used.

Some marginal elements pof information may be lost in translation. Some of them may be compensated for by the use of different devices, sometimes in a different portion of the message.

1.6 Reborrowing

Reborrowing is the process where a word travels from one language to another and then back to the originating language in a different form or with a different meaning.

This is indicated by A>B>A, where A is the originating language.

In some cases the borrowing process can be more complicated and the words might move through different languages before coming back to the originating language.

The single move from one language to the other is called "loan". Reborrowing is the result of more than one loan, when the final recipient language is the same as the originating one.

Examples

Old Norse:	klubba	>	English:	club	>	Swedish:	klubb ("association of people")
Old Norse:	hela	>	English:	healing	>	Swedish:	hela ("cure")
French:	tenez	>	English:	tennis	>	French:	tennis (the sport)
French:	cotte	>	English:	riding coat	>	French:	redingote	>	English	redingote
Greek:	кЯнзмб (kinзma, movement)	>	French:	cinema	>	Greek:	уйнемЬ (sinema, cinema)
Dutch:	bolwerk (bulwark, bastion)	>	French:	boulevard	>	Dutch:	boulevard ("broad avenue")
Dutch :	manneken "little man"	>	French:	mannequin	>	Dutch:	mannequin ("catwalk model")
Middle Dutch :	snacken "to gasp/bite at" /'sn?k-?n/	>	English:	to snack	>	Dutch:	snacken /'sn?k-?n/
English:	crack (news, gossip)	>	Irish:	craic (fun)	>	English:	craic
English:	animation	>	Japanese:	ѓAѓjѓЃ(anime)	>	English:	anime (Japanese animation)

Chapter №2. The contribution of definite linguistic cultures to form the lexical system of the English language

2.1 Indo-European languages group

Words and word combinations from Russian language.

There are not many loan words from Russian language. It is explained that relations between Russian language and English began not long time ago. During XVII- XVIII centuries the following Russian words penetrated to the English language:

"Astrakhan"-"каракуль"

"Kopeck"-"копейка"

"Ukase"-"указ"

"Samovar"-"самовар"

Most of adopted words got into English language after an October Revolution?. Among them such words as:

"Soviet"-"совет, советский"

"Bolshevik"-"большевик, большевистский"

"Komsomol"-"комсомол, комсомольский"

"Kolkhoz"-"колхоз, колхозский"

"Sovkhoz"-"совхоз, совхозский"

"Socialist competition"-"социаместическое соревнование"

"Five-year plan"-"пятилетка"

During XX century more and more words appear in the English language which prove that English people is interested in the political occurrences in Russia.

The influence of the German language.

In the words stock of the English vocabulary there are many words adopted from the German language. But there are not so many German lexical units which were included in the English dictionary. The thing is that a lot of German words which relate to the sphere of science serve as a constitution from Latin and Greek root. Words denoting conceptions of social and political and philosophic character, and terminological stratum which relates to maritime case are treated as German adopted words.

First adoptions were made in the sixteenth century. In this period words related to commerce, military science, names of plants and the rest were adopted.

? By the term October Revolution is meant the revolution against the Czarist government which was in November 1917

For example:

"Lance-knight"-"ландскнехт"

"Kreutzer"-"крейцер (название монеты)"

"Groschen"-"гроши"

"Staff"-"штаб"

Very serious influence of German language is seen in the sphere of mineralogy:

"Bismuth"-"висмут"

"Cobalt"-"кобальт"

"Zink"-"цинк"

"Wolfram"-"вольфрам"

"Nickel"-"никель"

"Iceberq"-"айсберг"

In XIX century appeared many new adopted words especially in the sphere of the humanities, philology, social life and politics, chemistry and physics, philosophy and art, words denoting food and household goods.

For example:

"Umlaut"-"умляут"

"Ablaut"-"абляут"

"Marzipan"-"марципан"

"Kohlrabi"-"кольраби (название капусты)"

"Leitmotiv"-"лейтмотив"

"Kapellmeister"-"капельмейстер"

"Halt"-"остановка, стой!"

"Drillinq"-"тренировка"

"Plunder"-"грабеж"

"Field-marshal"-"фельдмаршал"

"Marzipan"-"марципан"

"Kohlrabi"-"кольраби"

"Vermuth"-"вермут"

"Kapellmeister"-"дирижер, капельмейстер"

"Poodle"-"пудель"

Many adopted words are connected with the World War II. There are words denoting notions and realias appeared in the time of Hitlerite's regime. Here are several of them:

"Black Shirt"-"schwarhemd"

"Brown Shirt"-"braunhemd"

"Stormtroopers"- "stumabteilung"

"Nazi"-"нацист, фашист"

And some other loan words that came into the English language:

"Masterpiece"-from German "meisterstuck"-"шедевр"

"Wonder child"-from German "wunderkind"-"вундеркинд"

The impact of the Dutch language.

In the word stock of the English vocabulary compact relations between England and Netherlands were reflected in the sphere of commerce, military and economics. Holland is one of the closest countries to England (in the territorial meaning). All trades of England up to XVI century were limited to river basins of Baltic and Northern Seas. Between English ports and ports of Ganzei union the brisk connection was supported. The plenty of words concerning shipbuilding, navigation, trade was borrowed during this period from the Dutch language.

For example:

"Buoy"-from Dutch "boei"-"буй"

"Cruise"-from Dutch "kruis"-"крейсирование"

"Dock"- from Dutch "docke"-"док"

"Skipper"- from Dutch "schipper"-"шкипер"

"Sloop"- from Dutch "sloep"-"шлюп"

"Yacht"- from Dutch "jacht"-"яхта"

"Bulwark"- from Dutch "bulwark"-"бастион"

"Rover"- from Dutch "rover"-"пират, морской разбойник"

"Deck"-from Dutch "deck"-"палуба"

"Ledger"- from Dutch "ledger"-"бухгалтерская книга"

Through the history of England we may see that in XIII-XIV centuries government of England interested the Flemish weavers in giving them opportunity to settle in community and in organizing weaving. Such relations have also lest a trace in the English vocabulary.

For example:

"Rock"- from Dutch "rocke"-"прялка"

"Spool"- from Dutch "spoel"-"шпулька"

"Nap"-"ворс на сукне"

Development of painting in Holland in XVII century was reflected in the words stock of the English vocabulary.

For example:

"Easel"- from Dutch "ezel"-"мольберт"

"To etch"- from Dutch "etsen"-"гравировать"

"Landscape"- from Dutch "landschap"-"ландшафт"

Several words came into the English language from Boer language (the language of Holland peasants).

For example:

"Kopje"- from Dutch "kopje"-"холмик"

"Kraal"- from Dutch "kraal"-"туземный поселок"

"Veldt"- from Dutch "veldt"-"южно-африканская степь"

"To trek"- from Dutch "trek ken"-"тащить"

In all the mentioned above information it is seen that the influence of Dutch language to the English language is restricted by some special features and notions which proves that there was a connection between Holland and England.

The Celtic language contribution.

Germanic tribes, which had resettled on British Isles in V century, met with native population of those islands. However, in the connection with low phase of cultural and economic development of the tribes, the influence of the Celtic language was not very powerful. Relatively, a greater number of the Celtic words were borrowed in the later periods, but they were adopted from Gaelic?? language and Scottish language.

Here are some examples of early loan words:

"Bard"-"певец, поэт"

"Brock"-"барсук"

"Down"-"холм"

"Brat"-"ребенок"

"Dun"-"серовато-коричневый"

"Bin"-"мешок"

"Bannock"-"пресная лепешка"

"Cross"-"крест"

"Pillion"-"седельная подушка"

"Plaid"-"плед"

In the later adopted words the following can be mentioned, but they

"Flannel"-"фланель"

"Flummery"-"блюдо из пшеницы или овса"

"Coracle"-"рыбачья лодка из ивняка и кожи"

?? Gaelic is a language which is given to that dialect of the Celtic which is spoken in the Highlands of Scotland penetrated to the English language from Cambrian, Irish and Scottish languages.

"Clan"-"клан, род"

"Crag"-"скала, утес"

"Slogan"-"лозунг, призыв"

"Bog"-"болото, трясина"

"Shillelagh"-"дубинка"

"Tory"-"тори, консерватор"

"Spalpeen"-"бездельник"

"Claymore"-"старинный палаш"

"Glen"-"узкая долина"

"Loch"-"озеро"

"Tartan"-"клетчатая шерстяная материя, шотландка"

"Galore"-"достаток, изобилие"

"Cromlech"-"кромлех (кельтское сооружение бронзового века)"

"Eisteddfod"-"собрание уэльских бардов"

"Veel"-"название быстрого шотландского танца"

"Banshee"-"дух, стоны которого предвещали смерть"

"Shamrock"-"трилистник"

"Aberdeen"-"город Абердин в Шотландии"

"Dunbar"-"город Данбар в Шотландии"

"Kildare"-"город Килдер в Ирландии"

The Celtic words still preserve in the geographical names. For example, the noun "avon"-"река" retained as a proper name.

The capital of England - London also keeps some sing of the Celtic origin. Celtic people called London as "Liyn-dun"-"крепость у реки". But Roman people rebuilt the name of the capital as "Londinium".

In the Scottish dialect the Celtic word "loch"-"озеро" still preserve in the names of some lakes. The name of the Western part of the Britain - Wales, where settled the remainders of Celtic tribes, is also of Celtic origin.

The influence of the Latin language.

Latin vocabulary borrowing in the English Language is connected with the three events in the history of the England:

1. Roman's domination (from I to V century)

2. The appearance of Christianity in England (VI-VII century)

3. Culture's evolution in the Renaissance (XV-XVI century)

In England, as well as in other countries of Western Europe, the Latin language has an original location. During many centuries, after Christianity's appearance, this language was use to officiate to God. Public culture's evolution entailed the emergence of new notions. New words appeared from Latin language denoted notions out of the sphere of culture and life.

For example:

"Anchor"- from Latin "ancora"

"Box"-from Latin "buxus"

"Cappe (cap)"- form Latin "cappa"

"Pund (pound)"- from Latin "pondo"

"Assa (ass)"- from Latin "cesinus"

"Palm"-from Latin "palma"

"Engel (angel)"- from Latin "angelus"

"Kitchen"- from Latin "coquina"

"Piper"-from Latin "piper"

Altogether, by the calculation of the English linguist Bo, till the end of the Old-English period counted approximately four hundred and fifty Latin adoptions, exclusive of derivatives and proper names.

Distinguishing characteristic of the Latin adopted words in XVI-XVII centuries is that there are many verbs, adjectives, and not much nouns, whereas loan words? in the Old-English period are mostly consist of nouns.

Among adjective adopted words two main groups may be marked out:

1. Adjectives, traced to the Latin adjectives.

2. Adjectives, traced to the Latin participles.

?The term "loan-word" is equivalent to "borrowing".

Among the first group we may consider adjectives which end on "-al", "-ar",

"-id", "-ous".

For example:

Adjectives ending on "-al":

"Annual"- from Latin "annualis"- "годовой"

"Cordial"- from Latin "cordialis"-"сердечный"

"Dental"- from Latin "dentalis"- "зубной"

"Legal"-from Latin "legalis"- "законный"

Adjectives ending on "-ar":

"Lunar"- from Latin "lunaris"- "лунный"

"Solar"- from Latin "solaris"- "солнечный"

"Stellar"- from Latin "stellaris"- "звездный"

"Triangular"- from Latin "tringularis"-"треугольный"

Adjectives ending on "-id":

"Gelid"- from Latin "gelidus"- "ледяной"

"Frigid"- from Latin "frigidus"-"холодный"

"Livid"- from Latin "lividus"-"мертвенный"

Adjectives ending on "-ous":

"Atrocious"- from Latin "atrox"-"жестокий"

"Continuous"- from Latin "continuus"-"длительный"

"Obvious"- from Latin "obvius"- "очевидный"

Among adopted adjectives in the Latin language there is one group represented as comparative adjectives of the Latin language.

For example:

"Exterior"-from Latin "exterior", comparative form -"exterus"- "внешний"

"Inferior"-from Latin "inferior", comparative form- "inferus"-"низкий"

"Minor"-from Latin "minor", comparative form- "minus"-"маленький"

The second group is divided into two subgroups. The first subgroup consists of adjectives constituted from Latin participles of present tense. They have that sort of suffixes which correspond with Latin suffixes of participles of the present tense, such as "-ant", "-ent".

For example:

"Absent"-from Latin verb "abesse"-"отсутствовать"

"Deficient"- from Latin verb "deficere"-"недоставать"

"Indignant"- from Latin verb "indignari"-"негодовать"

"Fragrant"-from Latin verb "fragnare"-"благоухать"

The second subgroup is composed of adjectives produced from Latin participle of the past tense. Such adjectives have the following suffixes "-ate", "-ete", "-t" which correspond with Latin participle of the past tense; the remnant suffix? "-ct", the prefix "dis-".

For example:

"Correct"- from Latin verb "corrigete"-"исправлять"

"Desolate"- from Latin verb "desolare"-"опустошать, разорять"

"Desperate"- from Latin verb "desperare"-"доводить до отчаяния"

? By remnant suffixes are meant the ones that are only partially preserved in the structure of the word: Lat. (-ctus) >Lat. (-ct)

"Separate"- from Latin verb "separare"-"отделять, разделять"

"Disagree"- from Latin verb "disagree"-"не соглашаться"

Verbs borrowed from Latin language to Modern English can be divided into two groups. The first group consists of verbs produced from Latin participle of the past tense of the verb. Such verbs have the following suffixes: "-ate", "-ute", "-t", which corresponds with suffixes of participle of the past tense of the Latin verb.

For example:

"Accumulate"- from Latin verb "accumulare"-"собирать"

"Decorate"- from Latin verb "decorare"-"украшать"

"Contribute"- from Latin verb "contribuere"-"прибавлять"

"Distribute"-from Latin verb "distribuere"-"распределять"

"Connect"- from Latin verb "connectere"-"связывать"

"Select"- from Latin verb "seligere"- "выбирать"

"Collapse"- from Latin verb "collabi"-"рушиться"

"Dismiss"- from Latin verb "dismittere"-"отпускать"

The verbs of the second group produced from the stem of the present tense Latin verbs, which have such endings: "-el", "-de", "-end", "-mit", "-duce".

For example:

"Expel"- from Latin verb "expellere"-"выгонять"

"Repel"- from Latin verb "repellere"-"отражать"

"Collide"- from Latin verb "collidere"-"сталкивать"

"Divide"- from Latin verb "dividere"-"разделять"

"Contend"- from Latin verb "contendere"-"бороться, спорить"

"Comprehend"- from Latin verb "comprehendere"-"понимать"

"Commit"- from Latin verb "commitere"-"совершать"

"Omit"- from Latin verb "omitter"-"пропускать"

"Induce"- from Latin verb "inducere"-"побуждать"

"Produce"- from Latin verb "priducere"-"производить"

As with time more and more new Latin loan words were appearing in the English language emerged new stratum of French-Latin duplicates, i.e. a pair of

words- one of them was of French origin, and the other- of Latin origin. But both of them, they trace back to Old-Latin root.

For example:

"Feat"-"подвиг"

"Fact"-"факт"

"Sure"-"уверенный"

"Poor"-"бедный"

"Hospital"-"больница"

"Capture"-"захватывать"

The French adopted words.

It is absolutely different character bears French adopted words unlike Scandinavian adoptions. The most powerful influence of the French language had in the period of French domination in the country when the national language had not been still originated. The French language has been an official language in the England during 250 years (from 1066 till 1247) while in the country existed two languages.

The point is that the French language in respect of the English language occupied the predominant position as a language of feudal grandeur, government establishments, and schools and as a basic language of literature (parallel with Latin).

For example:

"Action"- Old -English, from Old- French "accioun"

"Carpenter"- Old-English, from Old-French "carpentier"

"Duke"- Old- English, from Old-French "duc"

"Agreeable"-"приятный, согласный"-Old-English,from Old-French "agreable"

"Beauty"- "красота"- Old-English, from Old-French "beate"

The great quantity of adopted words from the French language to the Modern English language is fallen on the end of XVII and the beginning of XVIII century.

It is characteristic of adopted words of that time to preserve French pronunciation and orthography. For instance, the ending "-ice", "-in(e)" are articulated as [is] and [i:n]. But nowadays it is characteristic for today too.

For example:

"Magazine"- "(периодический) журнал"

"Police"- "полиция"

The ending "-et" is articulated as [ei] which is similar to French pronunciation [e:].

For example:

"Ballet"- "балет"

"Bouquet"- "букет"

The ending "-que" is articulated as [k].

For example:

"Grotesque" - "гротеск"

"Picturesque"-"живописный"

The letter "s" at the end of the word is not pronounced.

For example:

"Corps"- "корпус"

"Debris"- "обломки"

The ending "-age" in the adopted words of that very period is pronounced as [a:] in contrast to old adopted words where it pronounced as [id].

For example:

"Barrage"- "преграда"

"Mirage"-"мираж"

The domination of the French language finished in the second part of XVI century but the greatest number of adopted words is fallen at that very period.

Originally, the French language spread in England mainly as a form of Norse dialect. But in XIII century it has lost its characteristic of spoken language and became an official language. French adopted words were represented as special terms- names connected with new notions. Most of them remain at the periphery of the word stock of the vocabulary: they constitute a numerous group of complicated words which are widely used in literary and scientific style. But some words became widespread and are used in every day speech. That is why they reflected brightly the condition, way of living, interests of those social layers which used the French language exclusively or predominantly.

For example:

"Face"-"лицо"

"Gay"- "веселый"

"Hour"- "час"

"Ink"-"чернила"

"Letter"- "письмо"

"Joy"-"радость"

"Money"- "деньги"

"To pay"- "платить"

"River"-"река"

"Several"- "несколько"

"Table"- "стол"

"Very"-"очень"

"Honor"-"честь, почитать"

Such words were becoming wide used not at one but with time.

As the French language brought to the English language an enormous number of lexical units which had a difficult word-formative system it told upon the system of word-formation of the English language on the whole. Definite French suffixes and prefixes can come out of such these words and may be used for formation of words from native roots.

For example, suffix "-able" comes out from "acceptable"; suffix "-ence" comes out from "different", "excellence", "evidence", "violence".

French adopted words still increasing the English vocabulary to present days. In XIX and at the beginning of XX century such words are of bookish character. However by the end of World War II the English language adopt many French words in the result of live communication of American Army with French people.

French adopted words are appearing in many spheres of our life such as politics, high life, sport and relaxation and the rest.

The Italian language influences.

The economic and political relations between England and Italy began to develop in XIV century. English economy was connected with Italian manufacture, which could not exist without English wool. These economic and political relations have found the reflection in dictionary structure of English language which borrows the Italian words concerning trade, manufacture and military science.

However, the strongest influence of Italian language was in Renaissance??.

Acquaintance with the literature of that period, traveling to Italy, studying of its painting, sculpture and architecture, interest to the Italian music, to the country all these was reflected in the words stock of the English vocabulary.

The earliest adopted words are dated from XIV-XV centuries and concern military science and trade. The following words were borrowed from the sphere of trade and finance.

For example:

"Ducat"-"дукат (монета)"

"Million"-"миллион"

"Lombard"-"банкир"

?? The term Renaissance means "rebirth" and describes the cultural revolution of the 15^th and 16^th centuries

Several words were borrowed from military science and navigation.

For example:

"Alarm"-"тревога"

"Brigand"-"бандит"

"Bark"-"барка"

"Colonel"-"полковник"

"Squadron"- эскадрон, эскадра"

In the XVI century economical relations with the country gave rise to new loan words:

"Carat"-"карат"

"Traffic"-"движение транспорта

"Porcelain"-"фарфор"

"Contraband"-"контрабанда"

"Bankrupt"-"банкрот"

"Soldo"-"сольдо"

"Battalion"-"батальон"

"Citadel"-"цитадель"

"Pistol"-"пистолет"

The English culture of Renaissance tested in practice the powerful influence of Italian culture. It is especially referred to Fine Arts, architecture and music. And that is why it is easy to understand why so many notions of these spheres are borrowed from Italian language.

For example:

"Studio"-"студия"

"Balcony"-"балкон"

"Cello"-"виолончель"

"Bass"-"бас"

"Soprano"-"сопрано"

Later, in XVII-XVIII centuries the following words were adopted:

"Macaroni"-"макароны"

"Medico"-"врач"

"Umbrella"-"зонт"

"To manage"-"руководить"

"Grotto"-"грот"

"Casino"-"казино"

"Volcano"-"вулкан"

In XIX century some words reflecting political struggle in Italy are borrowed. The group of words connected with science was increasing, but however, the greatest quantity of loan words is brought from the area of music and art.

The influence of the Spanish language.

As well as Italian loan words Spanish adopted words first appeared in the English language in XVI century.

The development of foreign commerce in England in XVI century inevitably leads to collision of economic interests with Spain, which was accompanied by both on land and at sea. These factors made a great influence on learning some Spanish words. First of all, these words are connected with the commerce. It should be mentioned that these words essentially concern trade concepts, words denoting objects of commerce.

For example:

"Cargo"-"груз", form Spanish "cargo"-"нагрузка, тяжесть"

"Contraband"-"контрабанда", from Spanish "contrabando"-"контрабанда"

"Embargo"-"запрещение", from Spanish "embargar"-"задерживать"

"Banana"- "банан", from Spanish "banana"-"банан"

"Cacao"- "какао", from Spanish "cocao"-"какао"

"Cigar"- "сигара", from Spanish "cigarro"-"сигара"

"Potato"- "картофель", from Spanish "patata"-"картофель"

"Tobacco"- "табак", from Spanish "tabaco"-"табак"

"Tomato"- "помидор", from Spanish "tomate"-"помидор"

It is necessary to notice that several groups of words, which denoted particular natural phenomenon, plants and animals with which come across colonizers in their property, also penetrated to the English language.

For example:

"Canyon", from Spanish "canon"-"ущелье"

"Savannah", from Spanish "sabana"-"луч, саванна"

"Armadillo", from Spanish "armadillo"-"броненосец"

"Coyote", from Spanish "coyote"-"степной волк"

"Mosquito", from Spanish "mosquito"-"москит"

"Hurricane", from Spanish "huracan"-"ураган"

In connection with Spanish- English wars there are many adopted words of military notions.

For example:

"Armada", from Spanish "armada"-"военный флот"

"Galleon", from Spanish "galleon"-"галеон"

"Guerrilla", from Spanish "guerrilla"-"партизанская война"

The last word ("guerrilla") emerged in the English language at the beginning of XIX century during the war between Italian people against Napoleon. Besides these words there are some other words which do not constitute any group of words.

For example:

"Canoe", from Spanish "canoa"-"челнок"

"Corral", from Spanish "corral"-"загон для скота"

"Matador", from Spanish "matador"-"матадор"

"Mulatto", from Spanish "mulatto"-"мулат"

"Ranch", from Spanish "rancho"-"скотоводческая ферма"

The English noun "pica ninny"-"негритенок" appeared in the result of learning the Spanish word-combination "pequeno nino"-"маленький мальчик, малыш".

Here are some other examples:

"Infanta"-"инфанта"

"Don"-"гранд (испанский титул)"

"Hidalgo"-"(г)идальго"

"Bravado"-"хвастовство, напускная храбрость"

"Renegade"-"изменник"

"Castanets"-"кастаньеты"

"Duenna"-"дуэнья (гувернантка, компаньонка знатной девушки)"

The impact of the Portuguese language.

Many Portuguese words got into the English language either straight to that very language or by means of other languages (languages which go-between), such as the French language or Spanish language.

Portuguese loan words almost entirely connected with the relations aroused from geographical discoveries. Mainly it were adopted words denoting new notions concerning with way of life and dispositions settlement of aboriginal population, with vegetative and animal's world, as well as words designating new objects of commerce. For instance, "negro"-"черный"- this word gets into the English language in slave-holding time in Brazil, when Portuguese people imported there slaves from Africa.

Here are more examples:

"Albino", from Portuguese "alvo"-"белый"

"Cobra", from Portuguese "cobra de campuz"-"кобра, очковая змея"

"Caste", from Portuguese "casta"-"каста (чистый)"

"Tank", from Portuguese "tanque"-"танк (хранилище, бак)"

"Marmalade", from Portuguese "marmelada"-"варенье, повидло"

"Buccaneer", from Portuguese "bucaneiro"-"пират, морской разбойник"

The word "albino"-"альбинос" came from an old word "alvo"-"белый". One Portuguese merchant called Negro- half-breeds. Now it is the name of all living things that do not have coloring including animals.

The next word is "cobra"-"кобра". There is a word "snake" in the English language to be replaced, but "cobra" is a definite type of snakes. When Portuguese people first saw it they have called it "cobra de cabelo" ("cobra de capuz") - "змея с волосами" ("змея с капюшоном").

The next is "caste"-"каста (чистый)". It was originated from the meaning "чистый, нетронутый". It was the name of some groups of people, who honored their customs and traditions, signs and religion.

When the word "tank" (tanque)-"танк" appeared in the English language it had only the meaning of "резервуар, хранилище, бак". But during the World War I this word acquired its present-day meaning.

The word "marmalade"-"мармелад, варенье, повидло" (from Portuguese "marmelada") descended from "Portuguese sweet dessert", which is cooked by dint of quince (Portuguese version is "marmelo"). The English people borrowed this meaning and gave the name to "джем, конфитюр (особ. апельсинный), повидло".

The word "buccaneer"-"пират, морской разбойник" (from Portuguese "bucaneiro") first denoted a wild sea-robber. And later all pirates were named as "buccaneer".

It should be emphasized that the following words are also adopted from the Portuguese language:

"Mosquito"-"москит"

"Anaconda"-"анаконда"

"Coco (nut)"-"кокос"

"Flamingo"-"фламинго"

"Buffalo"-"буйвол"

"Madeira port (wine)"-"Мадера (сорт вина)"

"Mandarin"-"мандарин"

"Guinea"-"гинея (золотая монета, денежная единица; = 21 шиллингу)"

The Greek loan words.

Many words of foreign origin have been appearing in the English language. And, of course, many loan words came from the Greek language. First, Greek words were adopted from the Latin language and only then they were borrowed from Greek to English languages.

Till XVI century not many people in England knew Greek language. But in XVII century appeared several scientists who knew Old-Greek language. Names of sciences which were included in the Universities of England were all of Old-Greek origin.

For example:

"Grammar"-"грамматика"

"Logic"-"логика"

"Rhetoric"-"риторика, ораторское искусство"

"Arithmetic"-"арифметика"

"Geometry"-"геометрия"

"Astronomy"-"астрономия"

"Music"-"музыка"

Later, in Tudor? epoch, descended new adopted words, such as:

"Drama"-"драма, трагедия"

"Theatre"-"театр"

"Comedy"-"комедия"

"Tragedy"-"трагедия"

"Catastrophe"-"катастрофа"

"Climax"-"кульминация"

"Episode"-"происшествие, событие"

"Scene"-"декорации, сцена"

"Monologue"-"монолог"

"Dialogue"-"диалог"

"Prologue"-"вступление"

In nineteenth and twentieth centuries emerged many neologisms, arranged adding Greek suffixes and affixes to well-known roots. By means of this in medicine, biology, surgery, stomatology, pharmaceutics, zoology, chemistry, metallurgy, electronics and other sciences appeared new terminological notions.

? Tudor -English ruling dynasty (1485-1603), including Henry VII and his descendants Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I.

For example, "tele-" is now used as prefix with the meaning "управляемый на расстоянии".

"Teleprinter"-"телетайп, телеграфный буквопечатающий аппарат"

"Telephotography"-"телефотография, телефотографирование"

"Telegraphone"-"телеграфон (аппарат для записи по телефону речи и последующего ее воспроизведения)"

"Telerecording equipment"-"записывающая видеоаппаратура"

"Telecast"-"телевизионная передача"

"Telecruiser"-"передвижная телевизионная станция, установка"

Prefixes "macro-"and "micro-" are settled down in the language so strongly that they have changed into free form and they can be added easily to any words.

For example:

"Macrobiotics"-"диететика долголетия"

"Macroeconomic approach"-"макроэкономический подход"

"Macromolecular"-"макромолекулярный"

"Macrometer"-"макрометр"

"Macropore"-"макропора"

"Macrostress"-"макронапряжение"

"Microalloying"-"микровплавление, микролегирование"

"Micro ammeter"-"микроамперметр"

"Micromachining"-"микрообработка"

"Microparticle"-"микрочастица"

"Microscale"-"микромасштаб"

"Microdefect"-"микродефект"

"Microdial"-"точная шкала"

Some of the Greek roots are found in the Modern English words.

For instance:

"bios"-"biology", "biography"

"demos"-"democracy", "demography"

"centum"-"cent", "century", "centenary"

"grapho"-"graphic", "phonograph"

"homos"-"homonym", "homophone"

"lexis"-"lexicon", "lexicology", "lexicography"

"onym"-"synonym", "antonym"

"phone"-"phonetics", "phoneme", "phonology"

"tele"-"telescope", "telegraph"

Adoption from the Persian language.

Many loan Persian words delved into English language by different methods. Owing to commerce with Persia, Persian words were adopted by Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and French languages. Persian words got into English language by means of all these languages

?? Moor is a member of a Muslim people of mixed Berber and Arab descent, now living chiefly in northwest Africa.

in a definite historical occurrence. Ingenuous Persian borrowed words are referred to the end of XV century till our time.

The following words came from the Persian language:

"Pasha"-"паша (почетный титул высших должностных лиц в Османской империи)"

"Toddy"-"пунш, тодди"

"Tiara"-"тиара (корона римского папы), папская власть, папство"

"Chess"-"шахматы"

"Shawl"-"платок, шаль"

"Lemon"-"лимон"

"Van"-"фургон, авангард" "Paradise"-"рай, райское место"

"Divan"-"диван, тахта"

"Orange"-"апельсин"

"Check"-"шах"

"Spinach"-"шпинат"

"Bazaar"-"восточный базар, благотворительная распродажа"

"Padishah"-"падишах (титул монарха в некоторых восточных странах)"

"Dinar"-"динар (денежная единица Югославии, Ирака, Ирана)"

"Toman"-"туман (иранская монета)"

"Caravan"-"караван, вереница"

"Caravanserai"-"караван-сарай, большая гостиница"

"Satrap"-"сатрап (наместник провинции в Древней Персии)"

The Persian loan words in the English language are about 100; 75 of them are not direct borrowed words. Here are several of them:

"Margarine"-"маргарин"

"Naphta"-"бензин-растворитель, лигроин нафта"

"Pyjamas"-"пижама"

"Sandal"-"сандалия, ремешок"

"Sara band"-"сарабанда (испанский танец и музыкальная форма)"

Many of these words passed a long through the history of English language before they got into the English language.

For example: "Rice"-"рис"- French Italian Latin Greek Persian language.

In the XIII century through the French language the word "scarlet"- "алый, ярко-красный" was adopted, in XIV century - "tiger"-"тигр", "azure"- "лазурь, небо, голубой", through the Latin- "arsenic"- "мышьяк", "salamander"-"саламандра".

2.2 Afrasian language group

The Arabic language borrowings.

The loan words from Arabic language reflect cultural and commercial relations between Europe and East.

It should be noted that as well as Latin language was the language of scientists in the Medieval Europe so the Arabic language was the language of science in the ancient East. Several Arabic words were adopted by the Medieval Latin language and from it these words got to the English language.

Arabic loan words constitute many words of eastern origin into English language. Considerable quantity of Arabic words conveys the notions which are typical for the life in the East.

For example:

"Emir"- from Arabic "emir"-"властелин, правитель"

"Bedouin", from Arabic "Bedouin"-"бедуин"

"Fakir", from Arabic "facur"-"бедный человек"

"Lute", from Arabic "lute"-"замазка"

"Myrrh", from Arabic "myrrh"-"мирра (ароматическая смола)"

"Sheikh", from Arabic "shaikn"-"шейх, глава рода"

The largest amount of Arabic words was adopted in XIV-XVI centuries. Mainly they were presented as scientific terms or they denoted the means of trade, especially eastern goods.

"Camphor", form Arabic "kafur"-"камфора"

"Alkali", from Arabic "al quali"-"щелочь"

"Amber", from Arabic "anbar"-"амбра"

"Tara", from Arabic "tarhan taraha"-"выбрасывать"

"Jar", from Arabic "jarrah"-"кувшин"

"Mameluke"-"мам(е)люк (воины-рабы в Египте в период средневековья)"

"Caliph"-"калиф, халиф"

The words of Arabic origin "almanah", "arsenal", "caliber", "cipher", "cotton", "nadir", zenith", "zero" and others are far-famed in the English language.

One part of Arabic words got into English language from the Greek and Italian languages, another part of words came from Spain, where Moors?? speaking Arabic people reigned during seven hundred years. Some words had a longer way- from Spain to France and only then they got into English language.

For example:

"Admiral", from Arabic "admir-al-bahr"-"начальник моря (дословно)"

Arabic people usually were middlemen by means of which Old-Greek culture penetrated into Eastern Europe. The following words serve as examples: "alchemy", "alembic", "carat", "eleksir", "algorithm", and "algebra".

Borrowings from the Hindi.

The main bulk of adopted words from Hindi are presented in the words of Urdu?? and Hindi languages. The Hindi words began to penetrate into the English language in XVI century and are connected with familiarization of wealth of India.

But the mass surge of Indian words concerned XVII century when India was the part of Britain. Indian loan words are mainly concern public way of life, habits, and social features of life, commerce and industry.

For example:

"Nabob"-"набоб"

"Maharadja(h)"-"магараджа"

"Bungalow"-"бунгало, дом с верандой"

"Jut"-"джут"

"Jungle"-"джунгли"

"Cashmere"-"кашемир"

"Pyjamas"-"пижама"

"Dinghy"-"индийская маленькая шлюпка"

"Dungaree"-"грубая индийская хлопчатобумажная ткань низкого качества"

"Ghee"-"топленое масло (из молока буйволицы)"

"Raj"-"господство, владычество, власть"

"Raja"= "rajah"-"раджа (княжеский титул в Индии)"

"Raj put"-"раджпут (военно-феодальная каста в средневековой Индии)"

"Tom-tom"-"(азиатский или африканский вид барабана) тамтам, гонг"

?? Urdu is An Indic language that is the official literary language of Pakistan, essentially identical to Hindi in its spoken form but in its literary form heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic and written in an Arabic alphabet.

2.3 Turkic language group

The Turkish loan words.

There are not so many Turkish loan words in the English language. Mainly they refer to the habits of life in Turkey, though some definite words obtained a more wide usage in the English and other European languages. They are:

"Bosh"-"вздор"

"Turkey"-"индюк"

"Ottoman"-"основатель Турецкой империи"

"Adauluagha"-"турецкий военачальник"

"Dolman"-"длинное турецкое платье"

"Uhlan"-"улан"

"Bey"-"бей"

"Divan"-"диван (государственный совет в Турции)"

"Horde"-"орда"

"Khan"-"хан"

"Pasha"-"паша (почетный титул высших должностных лиц в Османской империи)"

"Turquoise"-"бирюза"

The Turkic words.

The Turkic languages left a great print in the English language. The Turkic words got in the English language by means of direct contact or by dint of other languages (languages-go-between). The Turkic words began to penetrate into the English language only at the end of IV century. But it is also possible that Turkic words appeared in the English language with the help of Vikings??. In the time of Scandinavian dominion under the England (IX-XII century) the language of Vikings made a great influence on the English language.

To the earliest adopted words the following are referred:

"Beech"-"бук, буковое дерево"

"Sable"-"соболь, соболий мех"

"Cossack"-"казак"

"Horde"-"орда"

"Caviar"-"икра"

"Coach"-"коляска, карета"

"Kumiss"-"кумыс"

"Shagreen"-"шагрень (разновидность нарубленной кожи с неровной поверхностью)" and many other examples.

In the process of development of the English language the most of Old-English words, the words of Turkic origin are also among them, adopted in Hun?? period was ejected either by German words or by Old-French words. For instance, the Old-English word of Turkic origin "tapor" was ejected by German word "axe".

?? Viking is one belonging to the pirate crews from among the Northmen, who plundered the coasts of Europe in the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries.

?? Hun is a member of a nomadic pastoralist people who invaded Europe in the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. and were defeated in 455

It is considered that the word "sabot" and its derivatives "saboteur" and "sabotage" were adopted from the French language, but before it came from the Arabic language and then came to the Turkic language. The Etymon?? of the word "sabot" is the Arabic word "sabbat"-"сандалия". In fact, to both Old-French and Arabic languages this word was borrowed from the language of Turkic-Saracen, who lived in the Middle East. It is noteworthy that one of the names of buckwheat in the English language is "saracen corn"-"сарацинский злак". There is a group of Turkic words in the English language which originated from the verb "raby". These words are:

"Chabouk (chabuk, chawbuk)"-"бич, длинный хлыст"

"Chibouk"-"чубук, трубка"

"Saber (sabre)"-"сабля"

"Sjambok"-"плетка, бич из кожи носорога"

Many Turkic words came into the English language by means of Arabic, Persian and Hindi languages. About 900 Indian words got into the English vocabulary, 40 of them are of Turkic origin.

For example:

"Begum" "Burka"

"Beebee"

"Kajawah"

"Soorme"

"Topchee"

About sixty words got into the English language by dint of the Russian language:

"Hurrah"

"Koumiss"

?? Etymon is a word or morpheme from which compounds and derivatives are formed. A foreign word from which a particular loan word is derived.

"Ataman"

"Irbis"

"Kefir"

"Shashlik" and many others.

Some words came through the Polish language:

"Hetman"

"Horde"

"Uhlan"

From the Hungarian language by means of the German language and the French language the following words came into the English language:

"Coach

"Haiduk"

"Kivasz"

"Vampire"

The greater quantity of the Turkic words got into the English language from the French language.

For example:

"Badian"

"Caique"

"Caviar"

"Odalisqua"

"Sabot"

"Turquoise"

The majority of the Turkic words which came into the English language till XIX century, they are already gone out of usage. The rest words are used mostly in describing flora and fauna, way of life and habits, social and political life of the Turkic region.

But there are many Turkic loan words which are used widespread.

The listed above languages from which many adoptions came into the English language are far from being equal from the point of view of the influence on the word stock of the English vocabulary. But we should examine them because these loan words serve for the purpose of illustration of social and historical relations between the peoples in the English language. The word stock of the English vocabulary reflects all the changes in the political and social and economical life of the people.

The Scandinavian languages contribution.

First of all it should be mentioned that influence of Scandinavian languages is connected with conquest of England during IX-XI centuries. It is one and the same level of social and economic and cultural development of conqueror determined the penetration of words to the English language which symbolize already known notions and phenomena of reality to the British people.

The influence of Scandinavian languages were presented as every day words of wide use connected with notions which already have synonyms in the English language.

For example:

"Angry"-"раздраженный, сердитый"

"Wrooth"- "сердитый, злой"

"Skye"- "облако, облака"

"Taken"- "брать, хватать, начинать"

"Niman"-"брать, хватать"

It should be noted that the English language, on the one hand, and Scandinavian languages are brought into England, and on the other hand, they appeared to be closely-related with one of the German group of languages. It is well known fact that if two or more languages are closely-related then there is particular linguistic relation between the languages as long as such languages can more or less be used simultaneously at one and the same process of communication.

There are more than 400 words and word combinations which came from the Scandinavian languages to the English language.

The very first words which penetrated from Scandinavian language to the English language were verbs.

"Call"- from Scandinavian "kalla"

"Take"- from Scandinavian "taka"

To the adopted words from Scandinavian languages belong also:

"Husband"- from Scandinavian "husbondi?"

"Window"- from Scandinavian "vindauga?"

"Anger" -from Scandinavian "angr"

"Ill"- from Scandinavian "illr"

"Weak"- from Scandinavian "veikr"

"Wrong"- from Scandinavian "vrangr"

That or those adopted words from Scandinavian languages to the English one penetrated not only because of they were connected with some new notions to the English people. It was mostly because in the process of communication between Scandinavian people and English people such words appeared to be more useful for adequate expressing thoughts.

?Sc. "hus+bondi" means "inhabitant of the house".

?Sc. "vindauga" means "the eye of the wind".

In overwhelming majority of cases there was an interaction between Scandinavian and English dialects and on the grounds of regular authentication as a dialect of that particular language. As a consequence of that a very new variant of the languages was emerging which include something in common of the two languages.

Let us compare the verb "ken"-"знать". In the Old- English this verb ("cannan") has the meaning "оповестить, объявлять". The meaning "знать" appeared under the influence of Old-Scandinavian language "kenna" - "обучать, знать".

In the Modern English the word "dwell"- "жить, задерживаться" the meaning "задерживаться" ascends to the Old-English "dwellan" - "уводить прочь, лишать, обманывать, ошибаться", and the meaning "жить" is referred to Old-English "dvelza"-"жить"

The mentioned character of the influence on the English language of Scandinavian people call forth those Scandinavian words in the words stock of the English vocabulary are referred to widespread vocabulary, in the most cases from the very beginning of their appearance. In the majority of cases they remain in the vocabulary. For example: "anger, angry, fellow, fit, get, hit, leg, low, skill, take, want, week, till, they" and the rest.

It should be noted that Scandinavian influences represented themselves as not only wide used words but at the same time they gave a great quantity of derivatives.

For example:

"Hap"- "случай, счастливая случайность"

"Haphazard" - "случай, случайность"

"Hapless"- "несчастный, злополучный"

"Happen"- "случаться"

"Happening"-"случай, событие"

"Happy" -"счастливый"

"Happily"- "счастливо"

"Happiness"- "счастье"

"Happy-go-lucky"-"беззаботный, беспечный"

"Weak"- "слабый"

"Weaken"- "ослаблять, слабеть"

"Weak-headed" -"слабоумный"

"Weak-kneed"- "слабый на ноги"

"Weakling"- "слабовольный человек"

"Weakness"- "слабость"

"Weak-eyed"-"со слабым зрением"

"Weak-link"-"слабая перемычка (между слоями сверхпроводника)"

"Weak-willed"-"бесхарактерный, безвольный", and etc.

In the system of Modern English vocabulary Scandinavian influences function together along with aboriginal English words and they perform their functions.

Conclusion

Thus, in the course of research of the given Diploma work it was elucidated that many foreign languages made a great impact on the development of the English vocabulary.

The English vocabulary enriches itself with the best linguistic elements during the whole evolution of the English language. Modern English vocabulary has been changing and enlarging over many centuries. In spite of the fact it has not lost its originality. And nowadays it has so many words and word combinations in the stock of words, which also have played an important role in the forming the vocabulary.

Adoption of the vocabulary is the interaction in rapprochement the nation on the ground of economical, cultural, political, and scientific relations. The bright example of this is the French borrowings. But many of them were exposed by different morphological, phonetical and lexical modifications and they have lost its French character and that is why they do not apprehend as foreign words. The way that words passed through to get into the English language was multiple-stage.

Obeying the rules of adopting language some of them evolved new meanings which do not peculiar to their original variants.

Accumulating with new meanings adopted word enlarges the sphere of possible word combinations, deeper penetrates into vocabulary, and more bifurcates its semantic structure with the other words. And at the same time it is clearly distinguished as an independent lexical unit of the language.

To my mind we examined the problem of different adoptions in the English language. we have studied various ways of penetrating foreign words into the English vocabulary. But in spite of this it has not lost its originality.

Also we have viewed the state of the lexical structure of the English language as a whole, analyzing, at the same time, epochs of evolution through the history. Reasoning from this we can draw a conclusion that the English language, which has been accepting many foreign words from the other languages, have not lost its specific character notwithstanding the fact that it is still adopting new words with new meanings. On the contrary, it enriches itself with the best linguistic elements during the whole evolution of the English language.

On the one hand, as it may seem, the language has to preserve its essence and its character, but, on the other hand, to isolate the language, as a national culture, art, all this may lead to unjustified prospective results. It probably will stop the evolution of the language and will make it less colorful and alive.

Thus, we came to the conclusion that the English language is not a confined language, and it has lost nothing: it still belongs to the German group of languages with that particular characteristic features which are peculiar to it during the whole evolution, and those modifications which it endured only deified the word stock of the English vocabulary.

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