Stylistic potential of tense-aspect verbal forms in modern English

We have to feel the difference in semantic connotations. The meaningful difference consists exactly in the categorial semantics of the indefinite and comtinuous: while the latter shows the action in the very process of its realization, the former points it out as a mere fact…The stylistic potential of the continuous aspect is in its possibility to create a number of actions going on simultaneously in descriptions of scenes implied by the narration.

e.g.: Standing on the chair, I could see in through the barred window into the hall of the Ayuntamiento and in there it was as it had been before. The priest was standing, and those who were left were kneeling in a half circle around him and they were all praying. Pablo was sitting on the big table in front of the Mayor's chair with his shotgun slung over his back.»

(E. Hemingway., p. 154)

In his A Course in Theoretical English Grammar M.Y. Blakh describes and explains the category of retrospective coordination (the perfect aspect) that has been interpreted in linguistic literature in four different ways. In Table 15 «The Perfect Aspect» (The History of the Problem) we present a piece of information about the authors, foreign and native), who presented the perfect aspect as a problem. We present 5 subdivisions according to the ways of the grammatical interpretations:

1. «The tense view».

2. «The aspect view».

3. «The tense-aspect blend view».

4. «The time correlation view».

5. «The strict categorial view» by M.Y. Blokh.

This table is very convenient for students who wants to get post-graduated education and continue their philological observations in the frames of Theoretical English Grammar.

Grammatical material from the textbook written by M.Y. Blokh is very visual and inportant for students. There is no doubt that its numerous particular propeties, as well as its fundamental qualities as a whole, will be further exposed, clarified in the course of continued linguistic research.

I.B. Khlebnikova in her book «Essentials of English Morphlogy» underlines that the items selected for study in this book represent the most debatable parts of English Morphology. It concerns, first of all, the grammatical categories of the verb. The author marks that «the verb is a two-face Janus»: when it is viewed as the carrier of some generalized, abstract grammatical meaning, it belongs to morphology; when it is viewed from the point of view of the position it occupies in relation to different word-classes, it belongs to syntax. Taking into account all these we can find a lot of reasons to present «the third face of our Janus-verb» - stylistic features that are included in our research. The author in chapter IV «The General Organization of Morphlogical Forms» presents «Structural1 Principles of Organization» - The Macrosystem of the English Verb», organized in the table (Table 16). Being guided by Ukrainian, Russian, American and European linguistic schools - A. Hill, B. Strangle, O. Jespersen, L. Barkhudarov, G. CURME, G.N. Vorontsova and others - I.B. Khlebnikova expoands the characteristic features of an analitical forms of English verb. They are nine. Between them we can find the descriptions of:

an auxiliary as a verb which has no lexical meaning of its plus infinitive, participle I, II;

a collocations as indivisible in grammatical sense, though its components are separate words; it is idiomatic in grammar sense;

auxiliary verbs realized the «present-past» dichotomy:

have done - had done;

is speaking - was speaking;

shall do - should do;

verb as the whole macrosystem and in the central - microsystem of tense-aspect;

the abbreviation of the auxiliary component in colloquial speech:

I've done it, and etc.

The author presents the Microsystem and defines that the distinctive features of tense comes first since it is tense, and not aspect, that presents the frame of the system, though opinions may differ on this score (cf.: traditional Russian term «aspect-tense system of Russian verb»).

In her debates with O. Jespersen who denied the existence of future tense as a grammatical tense in English and it was repeated in more modern publications (By Barkhudarov, 1975) the author writes «the most exact approximation of the real, notional time will be the division into past, present and future, if the linguistic material admits such a differentiation».

The paradigm of tense-aspect in English, from the point of the author's view, is based upon temporal divisions (both proper and relative), forming a frame into which aspect differentiation is included within the range of different temporal points. Special attention was given to perfectnees.

Perfectness is the most enduring and essential category, acting in all microsystems (Table 17).

Describing stylistical features of the present, past and future tenses she marks that the present tense is widely used in narrations taking place within the sphere of the moment of speech, especially in plays and dialogues; «historical present»; permanent qualities, etc. The main sphere of the use of the past tense is the narration in the past, the representation of a chain of events which happened before the present' time. The complete parallelism of the future I and the future 11 and their purely grammatical meaning is exhibited an any contexts. The following sentences can be represented by both future tenses.

e.g.: Then I will drive this pilum through you.

(He said he would drive that pikum through him).

I shall not bother about them.

(He said he would not bother about them).

We would give the descriptions of some terms according to I.B. Khlebnikova:

transposition - the transference of some past actions into the range of the another axis of orientation - the present tense which is the initual point of temporal opposition.

neutralization - the future action is expressed by the present Indefinite or Continuous.

oppositions - represent an event on the plane of content of morphological forms which is reflected on the plane of expression.

e.g.: Mr. X arrives at London airport tomorrow.

I am taking the girl to London next week.

(neutralization)

The author gives definitions of abstract grammatical categories which find expression in the tense-aspect microsystem (active). There are three in number: tense, temporal relativity (perfect-ness) and aspect (durative).

We agree with the author that «the items selected for study here represent the most debatable parts of morphology. It concerns, first of all, the grammatical categories of the verb». Before presenting some facts at lecture a teacher have to transfer them according to the student's understanding.

Stylistic potential of tense-aspect verbal forms can be presented only in conditions of an utterance. An utterance is expressed by means of words and sentences. I.P. Verkhowskaya in her monograph «Tense-Aspect forms in English Complexs Sentence» conveys some results of her research work in the frames of the complex sentences (18290 examples). The author presents three tenses: Present, Past, Future Indefinite and shows how to use them according to the Sequences of Tenses. She pays her special attention to how to use the Present and Past Perfect and completes specific qualification in the frames of the complex sentence.

At the same time of discussion on a question about stylistic potential of tense-aspect verbal forms in Modern English we, the teachers, have to expand the students' skill in the sphere of grammatical usage of these forms in utterances. In this case we can elicit a lot of examples given by I.P. Verkhovskaya in her monograph.

«Practical Stylistics of English» written by L.P. Efimov is an attempt to supply the student of English Stylistics with a practical appendix to the lecture and seminar course of stylystic study. The f purpose of this book is to aid the teaching process by which a student becomes aware of the richness and variety of English stylistic means of communication. The author writes that the central notion of Morphologicai Stylistics is the notion of transposition: a divergence between the traditional usage of a neutral word and its situational (stylistic) usage. Transposition of verb is even more varied than that of nouns. It is explained by a greater number of grammatical categories the meanings of which may be transposed. Mast expressive are tense forms, mood and voice forms. One of peculiar features of English tense forms is their polysemantism: the same form may realize various meanings in speech. Deviation from the general meaning makes verbs stylistically coloured.

e.g.: (Present continuous as future time.)

Pete is staring a new life tomorrow.

(The present continuous introduces the negative connotations of irritation, regret, sadness and others)

John is constantly grumbling.

There is a rule that verbs of sense perception and mental activity are not used in the continuous tense forms. This rule is often broken intentionally or subconsciously. In both cases verbal forms convey additional stylistic meanings of subjective modality:

e.g.: I an seeing you = I am not blind.

e.g.: I am understanding you = You need not go into further details.

I am feeling your touch = So tender you are, etc.

The author marks that «historical present» brightens the narration, raises its emotional tension, expresses intrigue, makes the continuity of events visual and graphic.

e.g.: It was yesterday and looked this way. The perpetrator comes to his victim, takes a long dagger out of his inner pocket and stabs the poor man right into. - his belly without saying a word…

Transposition is not the only way to make expressive. A good many verbal forms are expressive in themselves, for example, the imperative mood.

e.g.: Just come to me now - «may contextually imply love or hate, threat of warning, promise or desire.

The wide range of subjunctive mood forms offers a good stylistic choice of synonymous ways to verbalize one and the same idea.

e.g.: It is time for me to go (stylistically neutral)

It is time that I went (bookish and obsolescent)

In many contexts passive verbal forma are more expressive.

e.g.: A round table occupied the centre of the room,

cf: The centre of the room was occupied by a round table.

e.g.: They answered him nothing=He was answered nothing.

All these notes are very important for our paper: they give some additional features to our subject but it is not enough for leaning in the frames of stylistic potential of tense-aspect verbal forms.

Thus, the pedagogical quest has long been to find ways of developing a student's knowledge about grammar which are both enlivening and rewarding, and it continues to be an important goal of contemporary educational linguistics. The field of grammar is often divided into two domains: morphology and syntax. In our case we have examined some points from transformational relations that were involved in tense-aspect formations of the morphological level. Different kind of transformations depend on the purpose of communication and can be treated only in the contexts.

In this case we can say about stylistic potential of tense-aspect verbal forms of modern English. Interactions between grammar and stylistics are of the essence of language and probably the most significant point to notice in studing of a language in general. A special interest attaches to the correlation between meanings expressed by grammatical forms and their stylistic meanings to which in our paper we repeatedly draw our attention.

2. The analysis of stylistic potential of tense-aspect verbal forms in modern English

The main aim of the second part is to research and pick out some interesting examples from original English literature according to two tables (4, 12) that is two types of grammatical transpositions and aspectuality in the frames of the peripheral field. Our purpose is to confirm the central principles included in these tables and to present a lot of samples to enrich the Theoretical Grammar with new visual and practical material that gives real jerk to teachers to complete students' seminars on this subject more interesting and productive.

The main methords which have been used in our research paper are:

- philological observations;

- revealind some samples, examples, facts from original literature of English authors and generalization;

- contextolpgical analysis of some contexts; description some important fact in considerable details.

Our results were obtained on the edge of some liguistic sciences:

Sty1istics, Functional Grammar, Syntax, Functional and Communicative Linguistics, The Theory of Interpretation of Texts, The Theory of Contextual Situation and others.

The application of these methods makes it possible to establish the concrete system in the frames of this students can observe stylistic potential of verbal forms in real environment and circumstances. The given gu tations from different sources serve to show how the two types of transpositions and aspectuality in the frames of peripheral field have been variously used by different English writers.

Stylistic Potential of Tense-Aspectual forms of English Verbs

2.1 The types of transpositions of verbal forms as stylistic came in the category of tense

Transposition with functional-stylistic characters expressed by verbal forms.

Archaisms are words which were once common but now are (Table 1.4) replaced by synonyms. When the author consider the grammatical system of English verbs as an adaotive system has to mark some, thing historical important in narrative, description or poetry they use archaic verbal forms. N.M. Rayevska characterizes: «The archaic variant forms are used for stylistic purposes to create the atmosphere of elevated speech in pictorical language, in poetry or in proverbial saying». (29, p. 55) There are only some forms: Table «Archaic Forms of the Auxiliaries». The forms given in the tables above are those of modern standard English. One may also come across archaic forms, mainly in. poetry or texts where an archaic effect is intended.

Forms	Grammatical characteristics	Verbs
dost [d?st], [d?st]	Present indefinite, 2nd person singular	to do
doth, doeth (d?O), [d?O]	Present indefinite, 3rd person singular
didst [didst]	Past indefinite, 2nd person singular
art| [a:t], [?t]	Present indefinite, 2nd person singular	to be
wast [wost], [w?st], wert [w?:t], [w?t]	Past indefinite, 2nd person singular
hast [h?st], [h?st], [?st], [st]	Present indefinite, 2nd person singular	to have
hath [h?O], [h?O], [?O]	Present indefinite, 3rd person singular
hadst [h?dst], [h?dst], [?dst]	Past indefinite, 2nd person singular
shall [??lt], [??lt], [?lt]	Present indefinite, 2nd person singular	shall
shouldst, shouldest (?udst)	Past indefinite, 2nd person singular
wilt [wilt], [?lt], [|it]	Present indefinite, 2nd person singular	will
wouldst, wouldest [wudst]	Past indefinite, 2nd person singular

We can add some more examples:

Saith = says; Modal verbs:

endeth = ends; canst, needest, mayest.

knoweth = knows;

spake = spoke;

throve = thrived;

bare = bore

art = is;

stretchest, coverest fwalketh, maketh, layeth, gettest, didst, stiteth, beginneth, heareth and others.

e.g.: Byron, George Noel GORDON, Lord -1788-1824.

«…For it hath been by sorrow nursed,

And ach'd in sleepless silence long;

And now 'tis doom'd to know the worst,

And break at once-or yield to song.»

(G.G. Byron. My soul is dark. 17, p. 16.)

«…Thy tree hath lost its blossoms, and the rind,

Chopp'd by the axe, looks rough and little worth,

But the sap lasts, - and still the seed we find

Sown deep, even in the bosom of the North;

So shall a better spring lees bitter fruit bring forth.»

(G.G. Byron, From Childe Harold's Piligrimage, 17, p. 211)

«…Thou stand'st along unrevall'd, till the fire

To come, in which all empires shall expire!»

(G.G. Byron, Moscow!, 17, p. 214)

«…The river glideth at his own free will:

Dear God! The very houses seem asleep;

And all that mighty heart is lying still!»

(W. Wordsworth_1770-1850, Westminster Bridge, 17, p. 32)

e.g.: TO-MORROW

«Where art thou, beloved To-morrow?

When young and old, and strong and weak,

rich and poor, trough joy and sorrow,

Thy sweet smiles we ever seek,-

In thy place-ah! well-A0DAY1

We find the thing we fled-To-day.»

(P.B. Shelly, 1792-1816,17, p. 57)

«O heart of man! canst thou not be Blithe as the air is, and as free?»

(H.W. Longfellow, 1807-1892,17, p. 142)

«Old Yew, which graspest at the stones

That name the under-lying dead,

Thy fibres net the dreamless head,

Thy roots are wrapt about the bones.»

(A. Tennyson, 1809-1892, 1/, p. 182)

«The Spanish people will rise again as they have always risen before against tyranny.

The dead do not need to rise. They are a part of the earth now and the earth can never be conquered. For the earth endures forever. It will outlive all systems of tyranny».

(B. Hemingway, 1899-1961,19,67)

«…Doubting Charley! Who trust nobody and believes nothing.

But even Charley can't deny that Sam's dead. He's dead.

When thou know'st how dry a cinder this world is:»

(R. Hill, published in 2002, l, p. 62)

A lot of Shakespearisms are used in Modern English which are described by A.V. Kunin in his book The Course of Phraseology of Modern English». A.N. Morokhovsky lines out some phraseological units as arkhaisms; be at accord with somebody = agree to smb.;

play upon advantage = to deceive;

at adventure = at random;

at fortune's alms = as charity of a fate;

all and some = separately and together.

Numerous archaisms can be found in Shakespeare, but it should be taken into consideration that what appear to us today as archaisms in the works of Shakespeare, are in fact examples of everyday language of Shakespeare's time.

The use of archaic variant forms in fiction, for instance, in historical novels, serves to characterize the speech of those times, reproduce its atmosphere, its «couleur historique» (historic colour). As we have researched numerous archaic forms can be found in poetry XVII-XIX, XX centuries: G.G. Byron, W. Wordsworth, P. Shelly, H.W. Longfellow, A. Tennyson; in prose written by E. Hemingway, R. Hill and others. For those students who want to continue to research this aspect of Linguistics there are a lot of unresolved points.

2. Popular language as a free and easy every-day speech

Acceding to Table 12 «Transposition with functional-stylistic characters» the next aspect of our analysis is «Popular language as a free-and-easy every-day speech».

I.V. Arnold writes in her monograph that authors use this phenomenon for stylistic purposes: to portray the story-teller or hero (personage) when their stories are about past events [4; 156].

Ain't is a nonstandard contraction commonly (esp in AmE) in place of am not, is not, are not, have not. Aren't I is widely used, especially in BrE, whereas ain't I, usually considered nonstandard, is somewhat more current in AmE. Amn't I is mainly Scottish and Irish.

e.g. «Dear Mr. Pascoe,

Cambridge! St Godric's College! The Quaestor's Lodging!

Ain't I the swell then? Ain't Home Office commercial for the rehabilitating power of the British penal system?» [Hill Reginal; 1; 13].

There are some illustrations from M. Twain:

e.g. «You don't know about me, without you have read a book by name of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, but that ain't no matter…» [10; 21].

e.g. «Stuff! Stealing cattle and such things ain't robbery, it's burglaty», says Tom Sawyer. «We ain't burglars. That ain't no sort of style…» [10; 21].

e.g. «Well, I knows what I's gwyne to set down here and listen tell I hears it agin» [10, p. 17].

e.g. «Why couldn't you said that before?» [10; 22].

e.g. «You git me that money to-morrow- I want it.

- I hain't dot no money.

- It's a lie. Judge Thatcher's got it. You git it. I want it.

- I hain't got no money, I tell you…» [10; 35].

Note: hain't = h a v e n o t, h a s n o t.

e.g. «It ain't my fault I warn't born a duke, it ain't your fault you warn't born a king - so what's the use to worry?…» [10; 150].

e.g. «The duke done (has done) it, and Jim and me was (sing) pretty glad to see it» [10; 150].

Note: warn't = will not in the past tense.

e.g. «So, things I, I'll go and search them (?) rooms… But I see I couldn't do nothing without a candle, and I dasn't light one, of course» [10, p. 207].

Ch. Dickens used a lot of the some examples in his novel «Our Mutual Friend»

e.g. «But what you may call the Fates ordered him into it again? Which is rumness, ain't?…» [5; 422].

e.g. «Mr Riderhood next demands his shirt; and draws it on over his head (with his daughter's help), exactly as if he had just had a Fight. - «Warn't it steamer?» he pauses to ask her. - «Yes, father». [5; 424].

e.g. «- Hear me out! «cried Wegg.» - I knew you was a - going to say so. But along I bore the anxiety, and alone I'll bear the blame!»… [5; 468].

All these quotations present themselves the low colloquial sublanguage. These dialogues (above) may not be exactly like others. Writers prefer to paint their personages in words. A detailed analysis of these non-grammatical speech patterns show that they are elements of a system, which is not deprived of rationality. Substandard English is used by millions of people in English speaking counties. It is a conspicuous indicator of low language culture and educational level. Being introduced into books, it becomes a picturesque means of protagonist's characterization.

3. Modal verbs and verbal forms with the modal meanings are very important for us to present and use a lot of subtle stylistic connotations in our speech.

The simple modals, such can, may, must, will, should have SINGLE forms, whereas the more complex structures known as PERIPHRASTIC MODALS are formed with the verbs be and have, as in be able to (can, could);

be allowed to (may, might);

be going to (will, would);

be supposed to (shall, should) - (meant, expected, obliged);

have (got) to (must);

to be to (have to according to the plan). [G. Yule. Explaining Grammar, 31, p. 86].

e.g. «Some books are to tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read in parts; others to be read but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention».

[F. Bacon, 46; 156].

«I wonder», said he (Wickham), at the next opportunity of speaking, whether he is likely to be in this country much longer.»

[Jane Austen. Pride and Prejudice, 4; 81].

«One of them at any rate: I (Shirley) do not bargain for less: and she is to appear in some such fashion as this. I am to be walking by myself on deck, rather late of an August evening, watching and being watched by full harvest-moon…»

[Ch. Bronte, Shirley, 11; 145].

«Might she only follow her own judgment, she thought she should be able to find, perhaps a harsh, but effectual cure for her sufferings». [11; 242].

«I asked to be allowed to look at the note of terms which his respectable patron had drawn up for my inspection.» [W. Collins, The Woman in White, 2; 10].

«Why blame it all, we've got to do it. Don't I tell you it's in the books?»

[M. Twain, 10, p. 21].

«Would you stop complaining about things? We're supposed to do our best and we should be able to finish this work before the boss has to start screaming at us again. If you could just concentrate on getting finished, we might be allowed to leave early this afternoon. You know he's not going to let us leave early if we can't get the work done.

[G. Yule. 31; 86].

Stylistic Potential of the Periphrastic modals in Context

Modal forms	Meanings	Examples
be able to	It is used to convey each of the different kinds of «potential». Difference is in the past tense: the implication is that the actual event took place. Note: can is used at least 10 times more often than be able to.	a) We could repair the old car. b) We were able to repair the old car.
be allowed to	«Permission» as a root modality is clearly appropriate when be allowed to occurs with other simple modals. Its interpretation differs from might in the past tense. With might, the interpretation is remote possibility, but with were allowed to, the interpretation is remote fact.	a) Will we be allowed to light the fire? b) Oh, no. You won't be allowed to play with matches. a) They might have a break after lunch. b) They were allowed to have a break after lunch.
have (got) to	There is no past form of «must». Expressions of past necessity are generally presented via the form have to for obligations and conclusions. In the present tense have to can be used in a wider range of constructions than must. As uncontrollable external source that compels an action. More typically found in informal speech have got to is used with the root meaning of obligation. It does not occur with other modal forms. Mustn't conveys an obligation not to do something, whereas don't have to means that there is not an obligation to do something.	a) When I was in school, we had to wear school uniform. b) He was really dig, he had to be over 7 feet tall. a) Do we really have to go this meeting? b) Yes, and we will have to present our report. a) Excuse me, but I have to sneeze. a) They've got to try harder next time. a) You mustn't drink beer. b) You don't have to drink beer.
be going to (the immediacy)	It is not used to express the «willingness» associated with «will». The future action is related to the present and will occur soon after the time of speaking. The action with be going to was already planned or decided. CF: I'm gonna be sick (the reduced form of casual speech shown); I will be sick (if I eat any more of this ice cream).	a) I'm going to finish these exercises. b) And I'll get round to the others later. a) Close your eyes, I'm going to give you surprise. b) Watch out! The monster is going to get you.
be supposed to	It is used with a function similar to should in its root sense of weak obligation. This is an implication with be supposed to that the social requirement being mentioned is external to the speaker and may be one that the speaker feels is being ignored. The social obligations are weaker than those marked by should.	a) You're supposed to be studying, not watching TV. b) I'm not supposed to be laughing about it but it's very funny.

Random Quirk [28, p. 137] gives classifying them as: some interesting information about the «The verb of intermediate function»:

1. Central Modals: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will/'ll, would/'d, must.

2. Marginal Modals: dare, need, ought to, used to.

3. Modal Idioms: Had better, would rather / sooner, be to, have got to.

4. Semi-auxiliaries: have to, be about to, be able to, be bound to,

be going to, be obliged to, be supposed to,

be willing to.

e.g. «One had better (best) do smith» - [25, v. 2; 119].

«If you want to feel good and live a long life you had better take a half-hour walk each day, preferably at a brisk pace». [3; 262].

«You had better ask us about the perfect diet in a perfect environment and how to maintain your good health longer if you take the effective doses of vitamins A, C, E, plus selenium, glutathione, cysteine, and bioflavonoids» [3; 266].

«One o'clock has just struck. I am considering whether I had better wait here for the arrival of the messenger from London, or slip away quietly, and watch for him outside the long gate». [W. Collins, The Woman in White, 2; 238].

«Or, perhaps - NO! it is quite revolting enough to feel that third conjecture stir ring in my mind. I would rather not see it confronting me in plane black and white». [2; 228].

«By whatever other circumstance the day may be marked. It is not the day, Lavinia, on which I will allow a child of mine to pounce upon me. I beg - nay, command! - that you will not pounce». [Ch. Dickens, Our Mutual Friend, 5; 430].

«I had not spoken hitherto, and I would much rather nor have spoken now. But the expression of distress in Laura's face when she turned it towards me… left me no other alternative than to give my option…» [W. Collins, 2; 218].

«Many of these visitor were consumptive, who had yet to learn that the bracing alpine air would sooner for their health…» [The Sunday Times, Culture, June 27, 2004, p. 42].

«The one virtue of our electoral system is supposed to be that it enables the people to «kick the rascals out» at election time…» [The Week, 30 Oct. 2004, p. 34].

I.V. Arnold points at modal particles just, only but K.N. Kachalova, [24, p. 303-305] includes too, also, as well, either, else, even, alone, ever, simply, merely. They can express the additional shades (connotations) in context.

e.g. «There was something hidden, beyond a doubt, under the mere surface-brutality of the words which her husband had just addressed to her». [2; 224].

«That was the very thing I was thinking just now, «said Stickly-Prickly.» I think scales are a tremendous improvement on prickles - to say nothing of being able to swim…» [The Children's Treasury of Humour, 12; 42].

«How strange! «cried Elizabeth.» How abominable! - I wonder that the very pride of this Mr. Darcy has not made him just to you!» [J. Austen, Pride and Prejudice, 4; 85].

«But I tell you, honestly, if you want to see me swim away, you've only got to drop me into the water». [12; 39].

«June 19^th. - I had only got as far as the top of stairs when the locking of Laura's door suggested to me the precaution of also locking my own door, and keeping the key safety about me while I was out of my room». [W. Collins, 2; 272].

Periphrastic modals are used to communicate a lot of connotations and subtle shades and tinges. This process of activation of periphrastic modals by relating them to our speaking and writing expands possibilities and potentialities of texts and discourses in the frame of their contexts. They convey the identities, knowledge, emotions, abilities, beliefs, and assumptions of the writer (speaker) and reader (hearer); association and the relationships holding between them. The most striking instances of periphrastic modals presented above give us additional material for the practical course in the frames of the theoretical English grammar.

Stylistic transpositions of special connotative value in expressive language conveyed by verbal forms. (Table 1.4.)

l. The Historical Present.

e.g. «Habits of writing and reading in Anglo-Saxon England were indeed largely confined to monastic centers; but from the twelfth century onwards the production and consumption of manuscript material increased greatly, and some vernacular works of fourteenth and fifteenth centuries survive in numerous copies.» [The Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature, 20; 3].

«Such verse (alliterative) continued to be written in English, as we shall see, to the end of the Middle Ages and it has bee revived in modern times by poets such as W.H. Auden; but its principles, derived from a common Germanic tradition of oral poetry, present difficulties to the reader of Chaucer, Pope, or Tennyson. [20; 4].

«The evolution of Homo sapiens, being with the same physical characteristics that we possess, was a long and complex process that is still imperfectly understood. The earliest evidence for the existence of Australopithecus, or «southern ape», dates from approximately 2 million years ago and comes from the temperate regions of Africa and western Asia (now known as the Middle East)». [Civilization of the World, 21; 4].

NOTE: The so-called «historical present» occurs in historical information, in rather mannered and formal prose of an old-fashioned tone, and furthermore it is common in colloquial spoken narrative, especially at points of particular excitement. The time reference is unequivocally past. [Quirk R., 28; 1457].

2. Colloquial spoken narratives with the «historical present» as characteristic of popular narrative style.

e.g. «It was on the Merritt Parkway just south of New Haven. I was driving along, half asleep, my mind miles away, and suddenly there was a screeching of brakes and I catch sight of a car that had been overtaking me apparently. Well, he doesn't. He pulls in behind me instead, and it's then that I notice a police car parked on the side». [Quirk R., 28; 1457].

«I hand the first book to my math. Perhaps it is grammar, perhaps a history or geography. I take a last drawning, look at the page as I give it into her hand, and start off aloud at a racing pace while I have got it fresh. I trip over word Mr. Murdstone looks up. I trip over another word. Miss Murdstone looks up. [Ch. Dickens, 29; 141].

«She has escaped from my Asylum!»

I cannot say with truth that the terrible inference which those words suggested flashed upon me like a new revelation. Some of the strange questions put to me by the woman in white, after my ill-considered promise to leave her free to act as she pleased, had suggested the conclusion either that she was naturally flighty unsettled, or that some resent shock of terror had disturbed the balance of her faculties. But the idea of absolute insanity, which we all associate with the wery name of an Asylum, had, I can honestly declare, never occured to me, in connection with her.»

[W. Collins, The Woman in White, 2; 21-22].

«Mr. and Mrs. Veneering were bran-new people in a bran-new house in a bran-new quarter of London. Everything about the Veneerings was spick-and-span new. All their furniture was new, all their friends were new, all their servants were new, their plate was new… This evening the Veneerings give a banquet. Eleven leaves in the Twemlow; fouteen in company all told. Four pigeon-breated retainers in plain clothes stand in line the hall… Mrs. Veneering welcomes her sweet Mr. Twemlow. Mr. Vereening we1coms his dear Twemlow…» [Ch Dickens, 5; 7].

«The poetry of Shakespeare was inspiration: indeed, he is not so much an imitator, as instrument of nature; and it is not so just to say that he speaks from her, as that she speaks through him». [Hazlitt, 14; 1].

«Shakespear's imagination, by identifying itself with the strongest characters in the most trying circumstances, grapp1ed at once with nature, and trampled the littleness of art under his feet: the rapid changes of situations, the wide range of the universe, gave him life and spirit, and afforded full scope to his genius… The author seems all the time to be thinking of his verses, and not of his subject, - not of what his characters would feel, but of what he shall say; and as it must happen in all such cases, he always puts in their mouths those things which they would be the last to think of, and which it shews the greatest ingenuity in him to fink out.» [14; 256].

«I was sitting at the bus stop the other day and this woman was sitting across from me and I see this caterpillar drop behind her and start squiggling its way up to her and I'm just like, «Should I tell her or should I not?» I sat there for five minutes a and watched it get up to her shoe and I decided I can't tell her. I've got to see what happens». [G.YULE, 31; 72].

«This is the only point, I flatter myself, on which we do not agree. I had hope that our sentiments coincoded in every particular, but I must so far differ from you as to think our two youngest daughters uncommonly foolish». [J. Austen, 4; 29].

Another illustrative example:

«He holds him with his skinny hand» «There was a ship», quoth he. «Hold off! unhand me, grey-bread loon!» Fftsoons his hand dropt he. He holds him with his glittering eye - The Wedding-Guest stood still, And listens like a three years' child: The Mariner hath his will. The Wedding-Guest sat on a stone: He cannot choose but hear; And thus spake on that ancient man, The bright-eyed Mariner.	PRESENT PAST PAST PRESENT PAST PRESENT PRESENT PAST PRESENT PAST
	[Coleridge S.T., The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, 36; 40-41]

NOTE: These three verses show no less than seven shifts of tense, backwards and forwards, from simple present to simple past.

The change of the tense-forms with one and the same time reference is a most effective stylistic devices in expressive language. The historical present describes the past as if it is happening now: it conveys something of the dramatic immediacy of an eye-witness account. The phenomenon of present/past tense alternation is common in informal spoken narrative, conversations and letter writings.

3. Echo Utterances

In the discourse function echo utterances are either questions or exclamations.

1 Recapitulatory echo questions:

a) a yes-no questions or questions which repeat part or all message:

e.g. A: The Browns are emigrating.

B: Emigrating?

e.g. A: Switch the light off, please.

B: Switch the LIGHT OFF?

or

Switch the LIGHT OFF, did you say?

(to make the meaning explicit)

b) a wh-echo questions which indicates, by wh-words, which part of the previous utterance the speaker did not hear or understand;

e.g. A: It cost five dollars.

B: How much did it cost?

or

How much did you say it cost?

I (after wh-element only)

e.g. A: Switch the light off.

B: Switch WHAT off?

e.g. A: His son is a macro engineer.

B: His son is a WHAT?

NOTE: What may replace a verb: e.g.: She sat there and WHAT ted?

Stylistic purpose: to express irony, incredulity, or merely fill a conversational gap.

c) questions about questions:

e.g.: A: Have you borrow my PEN?

B: (Have I) borrow your PEN?

(a yes-no question about wh-question;

a wh-question about a yes-no question;

a wh-question about a wh-question)

2 Explicatory echo questions

They are always WH-questions, which ask for the clarification, rather than the repetition.

e.g.: A: Take a look at this!

B: Take a look at WHAT?

e.g. A: He's missed the bus again.

B: WHO's missed the bus?

e.g. A: Oh, dear, I've lost the letter.

B: WHICH letter I have you lost?

(do you mean you have lost?)

not «did»

3. Echo exclamations: the form of utterance to be repeated may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or even exclamative.

Stylistic purpose: to express astonishment, amazement, confusion, wonderment, consternation.

e.g.: A: I'm going to London for a holiday.

B: To LONdon! That not my idea of a rest.

e.g.: A: Open the door, please.

B: Open the DOOR! Do you take me for a doorman?

Note: In the frame of our research we give follow examples from quoted literature, namely:

Examples from Jane Austen. Pride and Prejudice:

e.g.: Jane: I was very much flattered by his asking me to dance a second time. I did not0 expect such a compliment.

Elizabeth: Did not you? I did for you.

e.g.: Mr. Bennet. The person of whom I speak is gentleman and a stranger.

Mrs. Bennet's eyes sparkled.-A gentleman and a stranger! It is Mr. Singly, I am sure. [4; 63]

e.g.: (Mr. Bingley) What think you of books? said he, smiling.

Jane. Books-Oh! no. I am sure we never read the same, or not with the same feelings! [4; 97].

e.g.: Mrs. Bennet. I cannot bear to think that they should have all this estate. If it was not for the entail, I should not mind it.

Mr. Bennet. What should not you mind?

Mrs. Bennet. I should not mind anything at all. [4; 135]

e.g.: Lady Catherine. Has your governess left you?

Miss Bennet. We never had any governess.

Lady Catherine. No governess. How was that possible?

Five daughters brought up at home without a governess! I never heard of such a thing. Your mother must have quite a slave to your education. [4; 168].

e.g.: (Colonel Fitzwilliam) «We are speaking of musik, madam,» said he, when to longer able to avoid a reply. Lady Catherine. Of music! Then pray speak aloud. It is all subjects my delight… [4; 176]

Examples from Wilkie Collins. The Women in White.

e.g.: The Count. Gently, Percival-gently! Are you insensible to the virtue of Lady Clyde?

Sir Percival. That for the virtue of Lady Clyde! I believe in nothing about her but her money… [2; 298]

e.g.: Mr. Fairlie…. Inexpressibly relieved, I am sure, to hear that nobody is dead. Anybody ill? «…Anybody ill?» - I repeated (Frederick)… [2; 315]

e.g.: «Where are you going? He (Sir Percival) said to Lady Glade.

«To Marian's room,» she answered.

«It may spare you a disappointment», remarked Sir Percival, «if I tell you at once that you will not find her there.»

«Not find her there!»

«No. She left the house yesterday morning with Fosco and his wife.» [2; 342]

Examples from Charles Dickens. Our Mutual Friend.

e.g. «Are my feathers so very much rumpled? said Eugene, coolly going up to the looking-glass. «They are rather out of sorts. But consider. Such a night for plumage!

«Such a night? repeated Mortimer. «What became of you in the morning?» [5; 167]

e.g.: «Now, Lammle, «said fascination Fledge by, calmly feeling for his whisker, «it won't do. I won't be led into a discussion. I can't manage a discussion. But I can manage to hold my tongue.»

«Can? «Mr. Lammle fell back upon propitiation.» I should think you could! Why, when these fellows of our acquaintance drink, and you drink with them, the more talkative they get, the more silent you get. The more they let out, the more you keep in». [5; 252].

Echo utterances are recapitulatory echo questions, explicatory echo questions and echo exclamations. They repeat as a whole or in part what has been said by another speaker. They may take the form of any utterance or partial utterance in the language. The stylistic purpose is to express irony, sarcasm, incredulity, doubt, astonishment, amazement, confusion, wonder, or merely to fill in a conversational gap.

STYLISTIC POTENTIAL OF THE CONTINUOUS TENSE

1. Expression of anger or irritation with adverbs such «always, every time, continually, constantly, forever»:

e.g. «I am astonished, «said Miss Bingley,» that my fattier should have left so small a collection of books. What a delightful library you have at Pemberley, Mr. Darcy!

«It out to be good, «he replied,» it has been the work of many generations».

«And then you have added so much to it yourself, you are ALWAYS buying books.»

«I cannot comprehend the neglect of a family library in such days as these.» «Neglect!.»

[Jane Austen. Pride and Prejudice. 4; 38].

e.g. «Indeed, «replied Elizabeth,» I am heartily sorry for him; but he has other feelings, which will probably soon drive away his regard for mee. You do not blame me, however, for refusing him?»

«Blame you! Oh, no.»

«But you are ALWAYS blaming me for having spoken so warmly of Wickham?» «No…» [J. Austen, 4; 227].

NOTE: In combination with always, continually, or forever, the progressive loses its semantic component of «temporariness» The speaker seems to suggest that «buying books» or «blaming me» are an irritating or deplorable habits.

e.g.: He is CONTINUALLY complaining about the noise Bill is ALWAYS /CONTINUALLY / FOREVER working late at office.

[R. Quirk, 28; 199, 543].

2. Future arising from present arrangement, plan, programme:

e.g.: «A fine evening, Miss Peecher», said the master.

«A fine evening, Mr. Headstone», said Miss Peecher. «Are you taking walk?»

«Hexam and I are going to take a long walk».

[Ch. Dickens. Our Mutual Friend, 5; 206].

e.g.: He (Sir Percival) stopped, and appeared to notice, for the first time, that we were in our walking costume. «Have you just come in?» he asked, «or were just going out?»

«We are all thinking of going to the lake this morning», said Laura. «But if you have any other arrangement to propose»

«No, no», he answered hastily. «My arrangement can wait…» [W. Collins, 2; 203].