Syntax and semantics of verbals in English

Я знаю, что вы самое честное и безупречное существо из всех, когда-либо живших на свете.

I believe him to have no conscience at all. (Hardy)

Я считаю, что у него совершенно нет совести.

After verbs of mental activity the Perfect Infinitive is used but seldom.

The doctor found his heart to have stopped two hours before. (Hardy)

Доктор установил, что его сердце перестало биться два часа тому назад.

Note, -- With the verbs to think, to consider, to find the same idea can be expressed without an infinitive.

Boldwood thought her beautiful. (Hardy)

She found the subject rather interesting (Dickens)

You consider yourself an impressive person, eh? (Shaw)

3. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.

The surgeon pronounced the wound to be a slight one.

Врач сказал, что рана легкая.

She declared him to be the most disobedient child in existence.

Она заявила, что это самый непослушный ребенок на свете.

4. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs denoting wish and intention: `to want', `to wish', `to desire', `to mean', `to intend', `to choose' (in the meaning of 'хотеть').

I want you to come and dine with me. (Dickens)

Я хочу, чтобы вы пришли пообедать со мной.

I particularly wished those books to be returned to-night. (Dickens)

Я очень хотел, чтобы эти книги были возвращены сегодня.

She desired me to follow her upstairs. (Ch. Bronte)

Она велела, чтобы я пошла за ней наверх.

5. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs and expression denoting feeling and emotion: `to like', `to dislike', `to love', `to hate', `cannot bear', etc.

I dislike you to talk like that.

Я не люблю, когда вы так говорите.

I hate him to be flogged. (E. Bronte)

Я терпеть не могу, когда его бьют.

I cannot bear you to speak of that. (Eliot)

Я не могу выносить, когда вы говорите об этом.

6. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs denoting order and permission: to order, to allow, to suffer, to have, etc.

Here we find the Objective with the Infinitive only if the object is expressed by a noun or pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or when the infinitive is passive. This restriction does not apply to the verbs to suffer and to have.

Mr. Merdle ordered his carriage to be ready early in the morning. (Dickens)

Мистер Мердль приказал, чтобы экипаж был готов рано утром.

She ... had never allowed the name of John Gordon to pass her lips. (Trollope)

Она никогда не позволяла себе произносить имя Джона Гордона.

Не ordered the boy to be put to bed. The teacher ordered the room to be aired.

After such verbs as "to order" and "to allow" the Infinitive in the Active Voice can be used only when these verbs are followed by an object denoting a person who is ordered or allowed to do something.

The dean allowed the secretary to change the time-table.

Here we find two direct objects and not the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.

Such sentences as "the dean ordered to change the time-table" are impossible in English whereas in Russian they are widely used.

"Декан разрешил изменить расписание".

So when translating such sentences into English we use the objective with the Infinitive Construction where the Infinitive is in the Passive Voice.

The dean allowed the time-table to be changed.

Mr. Dombey suffered Florence to play with Paul.

Мистер Домби неохотно разрешил (позволил скрепя сердце) Флоренс играть с Полем.

She suffered Mr. Franklin to lead her back into the room. (Collins)

Она позволила мистеру Франклину отвести себя обратно в комнату.

From these examples we see that the verb to suffer, when followed by the Objective with the Infinitive, is rendered in affirmative sentences by `неохотно разрешить', `позволить' (скрепя сердце). In negative sentences it is rendered by `допускать'. The verb to have denotes permission only in negative sentences; it is very close in meaning to the verb to suffer and is translated in the same way.

7. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is used after verbs denoting compulsion: to make (in the meaning of 'заставить'). to cause (in the meaning of 'заставить', 'распорядиться'), to get (in the meaning of 'добиться'), to have (in the meaning of 'заставить; сказать чтобы').

Light steps in the gravel made him turn his head. (London)

Легкие шаги по гравию заставили его повернуть голову.

The noise caused her to awake.

От шума она проснулась (шум заставил ее проснуться).

Site caused a telegram to be sent to him. (Galsworthy)

Она распорядилась, чтобы ему послали телеграмму.

8. Though the infinitive as a rule is not used with verbs requiring prepositions, the Objective with the Infinitive is widely used with the preposition `for'.

Occasionally it occurs with the preposition on or upon (after the verb to rely).

I rely on you to come in time.

Я рассчитываю, что вы придете вовремя.

I rely upon you not to go over to the opposition. (Dickens)

Я рассчитываю, что вы не перейдете на сторону противника.

The Subjective Infinitive Construction.

The Subjective Infinitive Construction (traditionally called the Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction) is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case.

The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.

Edith is said to resemble me. (Dickens)

Говорят, что Эдит похожа на меня.

The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the following groups of verbs in the Passive Voice:

1. With verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear, etc.

Mr. Bob Sawyer was heard to laugh heartily. (Dickens)

Слышно было, как смеется Боб Сойер.

The rider was seen to disappear in the distance.

Видно было, как всадник скрылся вдали.

If a process is expressed Participle I Indefinite Active is used.

Tess's father was heard approaching at that moment. (Hardy)

В этот момент они услышали, что подходит отец Тэсс.

2. With verbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to knew, to expect, to believe, to suppose.

He was thought to be honest and kindly. (Dreiser)

Его считали честным и добрым человеком.

My father ... was considered by many to be a great man. (Gow and D'Usseau)

Многие считали моего отца незаурядным человеком.

3. With the verb to make.

Little Abraham was aroused... and made to put on his clothes ... (Hardy)

Маленького Эбрахама разбудили и заставили одеться.

4. With Verbs to say and to report.

The gods had given Irene dark-brown eyes and golden hair, which is said to be the mark of a weak character. (Galsworthy)

Боги наделили Ирэн темно-карими глазами и золотистыми волосами, что, как говорят, является признаком слабости характера.

From these examples we can see that in translating sentences containing the Subjective Infinitive Construction after verbs in the Passive Voice a complex sentence is mostly used: its principal clause is of the type which in Russian syntax is called 'indefinite personal' (неопределенно-личное предложение).

After verbs in the Passive Voice the Subjective Infinitive-Construction is more characteristic of literary than of colloquial style, except with the verbs to suppose, to expect, to make; with these verbs the Subjective Infinitive can be found both in fiction and in colloquial language.

The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the word-groups to be likely, to be sure, and to be certain.

The parish is not likely to quarrel with him for the right to keep the child. (Eliot)

Приход вряд ли будет оспаривать у него право содержать этого ребенка.

Sentences of this kind are rendered in Russian by a simple sentence with a modal word. Note the difference between:

He is sure to come.

Он обязательно придет.

He is sure of coming.

Он уверен, что он придет.

The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the following pairs of synonyms: to seem and to appear; to happen and to chance (the latter is literary); to prove and to turn out.

They seemed to have quite forgotten him already. (Hardy)

Они, казалось (по-видимому), уже совершенно забыли его.

Her eyes appeared always to gaze beyond, and far beyond. (E. Bronte)

Ее глаза, казалось, всегда были устремлены куда-то далеко-далеко.

Mrs. Cowperwood, in spite of the difference in their years, appeared to be a fit mate for him at this time. (Dreiser)

Несмотря на разницу в возрасте, миссис Каупервуд в этот период его жизни, по-видимому (казалось), была для ,него подходящей женой.

The infinitive in sentences with the Subjective Infinitive Construction cannot refer to a future action except with verbs and word-groups whose meaning allows of it: to expect, to be sure (certain), to be likely.

We are sure to come at the heart of the matter. (Dickens)

Мы обязательно доберемся до сути дела.

Не is expected to give us an answer to-morrow.

Ожидают, что он даст нам ответ завтра.

The for-to-Infiriitive Construction.

The for-to-lnfinitive Construction is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun or pronoun preceded by the preposition for.

In translating this construction into Russian a subordinate clause or an infinitive is used.

The construction can have different functions in the sentence. It can be:

1. Subject (often with the introductory it).

For me to ask would be treason, and for me to be told would be treason. (Wilson)

Если бы я спросила, это было бы предательством; если бы мне сказали, это было бы предательством.

I sometimes think it is a shame for people to spend so much money this way. (Dreiser)

Я часто думаю, что стыдно людям тратить на это так много денег.

2. Predicative.

That was for him to find out. (Eliot)

Выяснить это должен был он.

3. Complex object.

Me waited for her to speak. (Hardy)

Он ждал, когда она заговорит.

He asked for the papers to be- brought.

Он попросил принести бумаги.

I am very anxious for Mr. Headstone to succeed in all he undertakes. (Dickens)

Мне очень хочется, чтобы мистеру Хедстону удавалось все, за что он берется.

4. Attribute.

The best thing for you to do is to bide here with your load. I'll send somebody to help you. (Hardy)

Самое лучшее, что вы можете сделать, -- это подождать здесь с вашей поклажей. Я пришлю кого-нибудь помочь вам.

There was really nothing for him to do but what he had done. (Dreiser)

Ему действительно ничего не оставалось делать, кроме того, что он сделал (единственное, что ему оставалось сделать, было то, что он сделал).

5. Adverbial modifier:

(a) of purpose.

Here's the thermometer: they've left it for the doctor to see instead of shaking it down. (Shaw)

Вот термометр; его не стряхнули, чтобы доктор мог посмотреть температуру.

Не stepped aside for me to pass. (Du Marnier)

Он отошел в сторону, чтобы я могла пройти.

(b) of result.

The pleasure of accompanying you was too great a temptation for me to resist. (Collins)

Удовольствие сопровождать вас было так велико, что я не мог ему противиться.

But he had consented, and it was too late for him now to recede. (Trollope)

Но он уже дал согласие, и теперь было поздно отступать.

With the expressions to be sorry, to be glad the infinitive is used only if the subject of the sentence represents at the same time the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive.

1 am glad (pleased) to have got a ticket for the concert.

I am glad to have seen you. (Dreiser)

I am very sorry to have done a man wrong, particularly when it can't be undone. (Dickens)

In other cases a clause is used with to be glad and to be sorry.

I am glad you got a ticket for the concert.

2.2.3 Syntax and Semantics of Participles

Participle I

Participle I as an attribute.

Participle I Indefinite Active can be used as an attribute; in this function it corresponds to the Russian действительное причастие.

The fence surrounding the garden is newly painted.

Забор, окружающий сад, недавно покрашен.

We admired the stars twinkling in the sky.

Мы любовались звездами, мерцавшими на небе.

In some cases Participle I in the function of an attribute is rendered in Russian by a clause.

He came back and stood --resolute on the steps leading down to the street. (Cusack)

Он вернулся и стоял в нерешительности на лестнице, которая вела на улицу.

In the function of an attribute Participle I can be in preposition and in postposition, i.e. it can precede the noun it modifies, and follow it. Participle I in pre-position hardly ever has accompanying words.

The gate-keeper surveyed the retreating vehicle. (Hardy)

Привратник смотрел на удалявшийся экипаж.

Participle I in post-position as a rule has one or several accompanying words.

They dined outside upon the terrace facing Vesuvius. (Hichens)

Они пообедали на террасе, выходившей к Везувию.

Through the massive sunlight illuminating the hall at Robin Hill, the July sunlight at five o'clock fell just where the broad staircase turned. (Galsworthy)

Сквозь массивную стеклянную крышу, освещавшую холл в Робин Хилле, лучи июльского солнца в пять часов падали как раз на поворот широкой лестницы.

Participle I Indefinite Passive is very seldom used as an attribute.

There was one line being laid out to within a few blocks of his new home... which interested him greatly. (Dreiser)

Его очень интересовала линия, которую прокладывали в нескольких кварталах, от его нового дома.

Participle I Perfect Active and Passive is not used attributively.

Attention should be paid to the fact that Participle I in the function of an attribute cannot express priority; therefore, it often happens that when in Russian we have причастие in English we find a finite verb. Such is the case with the Russian действительное причастие прошедшего времени expressing priority; it is rendered in English by an attributive clause. Швейцер А.Д. Теория перевода (статус, проблемы, аспекты). М., 1988. c. 119

Татьяна, с великим равнодушием переносившая до того мгновения все превратности своей жизни, тут, однако, не вытерпела, прослезилась. (Тургенев)

Tatiana, who had until that moment borne all the ups and downs of her life with great indifference, broke down, however, on this and burst into tears. '' (Translated by Domb)

Бульба повел сыновей своих в светлицу, откуда проворно выбежали две красивые девки-прислужницы, прибиравшие комнату. (Гоголь)

Bulba bade his sons follow him into the little guest-chamber, whence two pretty serving-wenches, who bad been arranging the room, ran out. (Translated by Baskerville)

A clause, not a participle, is generally used in English even when the Russian действительное причастие прошедшего времени expresses an action simultaneous with that of the finite verb.

Базаров закурил трубку и подошел к ямщику, отпрягавшему лошадей. (Тургенев)

Bazarov lit his pipe and went up to the driver who was unharnessing the horses. (Translated by С. Garnett)

Матушка, знавшая наизусть все его обычаи..., всегда старалась засунуть несчастную книгу подальше. (Пушкин)

My mother, who knew all his habits, used to thrust the obnoxious volume into some remote hiding-place. (Translated 'by J. and T. Litvinov)

Occasionally, however, in rendering the Russian действительное причастие прошедшего времени, a participle is used in English. This is often the case when действительное причастие прошедшего времени refers to no particular time.

Заря уже занималась на небе, когда Соломин постучался в калитку высокого забора, окружавшего фабрику. (Тургенев)

Dawn was already beginning in the sky when Solomin knocked at the gate in the high fence surrounding the factory. (Translated by С Garnett)

Потом он обратил внимание посетителей на висевшую над его головой картину, писанную масляными красками. (Тургенев)

Then he drew the attention of his guests to a picture hanging above his head, painted in oils. ('Translated by C. Garnett)

In many cases an attribute expressed by Participle I is detached, i.e. it acquires a certain independence in the sentence; the connection between the attribute and the word it modifies is loose. A detached attribute is usually separated by a comma.

It was the entrance to a large family vault, extending under the north aisle. (Hardy)

Это был вход в большой фамильный склеп, простиравшийся под северным приделом храма.

Participle I as an adverbial modifier.

All the forms of Participle I may be used as an adverbial modifier. Participle I Indefinite expresses an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb and corresponds to the Russian деепричастие несовершенного вида; Participle I Perfect expresses an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb and corresponds to the Russian деепричастие совершенного вида. In some cases Participle I in the function of an adverbial modifier is rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause. Швейцер А.Д. Теория перевода (статус, проблемы, аспекты). М., 1988. c. 120

Participle I can be an adverbial modifier:

(a) of time.

Approaching Malta Street, Soho, Soames thought with wonder of those years in Brighton. (Galsworthy)

Приближаясь к Мальта Стрит в Сохо, Сомc с удивлением думал о годах, проведенных в Брайтоне.

Having closed the drawing-room door on him, Isabel awaited a little, absorbed in her own thoughts. (Collins)

Закрыв за ним дверь гостиной, Изабелла подождала немного, погруженная в свои мысли.

As has already been stated, with some verbs of sense perception and motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to enter, "to seize, to look out, to turn and some others, Participle I Indefinite is used even when priority is meant. In Russian деепричастие совершенного вида is used in such cases.

Anna... hearing his step, ran to the foot of the stairs to meet him. (Eliot)

Анна..., услышав его шаги, побежала вниз по лестнице встретить его.

Arriving there the visitor found everything that should be found at old manors. (Coppard)

Приехав туда, гость нашел все то, что обычно находят в старых поместьях.

Entering her room that evening, Elfride found a packet for herself on the dressing-table. (Hardy)

Войдя вечером в свою комнату, Элфрид нашла на туалетном столе сверток.

If the action expressed by Participle I Indefinite Active is simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb, the conjunction when or while is often used.

…it was possible for Urquhart, when making his toilet, to survey with pride an original willow pattern tea service. (Cronin)

Экхарт мог, пока он одевался, с гордостью любоваться чайным сервизом с настоящим китайским рисунком.

While waiting for the water to boil, he held his face over the stove. (London)

Дожидаясь, когда закипит вода, он наклонился над печкой.

Participle I Indefinite of the verb “to be” is not used as an adverbial modifier of time. Clauses of the type 'Когда он был ребенком...,' 'Когда он был в Ленинграде...' may be translated When a boy.... When he was a boy..., When in Leningrad..., When he was in Leningrad. ..

(b) of cause.

Being of a more slender figure than Mr. Jarndyce, and having a richer complexion, Mr. Skimpole looked younger. (Dickens)

Так как мистер Скимпоул был стройнее мистера Джарндайса и так как цвет лица у него был лучше, он выглядел моложе.

Having been a little in that line myself, I understood it. (Shaw)

Так как я сам раньше некоторое время работал в этой области, я понимал это.

(с) of manner and attendant circumstances. In this function Participle I Indefinite is mostly used.

She balanced herself on the curbstone and began to walk carefully, setting heel to toe, heel to toe, and counting her steps. (Heym) (adverbial modifier of manner)

Она встала на край тротуара и осторожно пошла вперед, переступая с пятки па кончики пальцев и считая свои шаги.

Gwendolyn was silent, again looking at her hands. (Eliot) (adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances)

Гвендолин молчала, разглядывая свои руки.

It is not always easy to discriminate between an adverbial modifier of manner and an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.

He has been in three revolutions fighting on the barricades. (Shaw)

Он принимал участие в трех революциях, сражаясь па баррикадах.

(d) of comparison. In this function Participle I is introduced by the conjunction as if or as though.

This was said as if thinking aloud. (Gaskell)

Это было сказано так, как будто он думал вслух.

... he was still on his guard, as though waiting for a further question from me. (Du Marnier)

Он все еще был настороже, словно ожидая, что я задам ему еще один вопрос.

Participle I as a predicative.

In this function Participle I is used but seldom; it is usually rendered in Russian by an adjective.

The effect of her words was terrifying.

Впечатление, произведенное ее словами, было страшно.

The whole damned day had been humiliating. (Priestley)

Весь этот ужасный день был унизительным.

Participle I as part of a complex object.

I saw that young man and his wife talking to you on the stairs. (Galsworthy)

Я видел, как этот молодой человек и его жена разговаривали с нами па лестнице.

Participle I as part of a compound verbal predicate.

Presently other footsteps were heard crossing the room below. (Hardy)

Вскоре они услышали, что через комнату вниз прошел еще кто-то.

Participial phrase as parenthesis.

Here we always find a participial phrase; a single participle is not used in this function.

Generally speaking, I don't like boys. (Dickens)

Вообще говоря, я не люблю мальчиков.

Judging by appearances, Mr. Bowmore looked like a man prematurely wasted and worn by the cares of a troubled life. (Collins)

Судя по внешности, мистер Баумор был человек преждевременно состарившийся и измученный тяготами жизни.

Participle II

Participle II as an attribute.

When used as an attribute Participle II of transitive verbs corresponds to the Russian страдательное причастие or действительное причастие of some verbs ending in -ся, е. g. a broken chair (сломанный стул), a broken cup (разбитая чашка), a newspaper published in Moscow (газета, издаваемая в Москве), the problem discussed at the meeting (вопрос, обсуждавшийся на собрании).

Participle II, as well as Participle I, can be used in preposition (without any accompanying words) and in post-position (with one or more accompanying words).

He answered through the locked door. (Wells)

Он ответил через закрытую дверь.

They turned into the large conservatory beautifully lit up with Chinese lamps. (Eliot)

Они свернули в большую оранжерею, красиво освещенную китайскими фонариками.

Participle II of intransitive verbs which denote passing into a new state, corresponds to the Russian действительное причастие or to an adjective. However, only in a few cases Participle II of an intransitive verb may be used attributively, mostly Participle II of the verbs to fade, to wither, to retire, to fall, to vanish, e. g. faded leaves (увядшие листья), a withered flower (засохший цветок), a retired colonel (отставной полковник), a fallen star (упавшая звезда), the vanished jewels (пропавшие драгоценности).

An attribute expressed by Participle II may be detached; in .this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbial modifier:

The housekeeper had come out of her room, attracted by the violent ringing of the bell. (Conan Doyle)

Экономка вышла из своей комнаты, привлеченная неистовым звоном колокольчика.

Accompanied by his father and Steger, he (Cowperwood) ascended to his new room. (Dreiser)

Сопровождаемый отцом и Стеджером (в сопровождении отца и Стеджера), он поднялся в свою новую комнату.

Participle II as an adverbial modifier.

In this function Participle II is preceded by the conjunctions when, while, if, as if, as though, though, etc. It is generally rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause.

Participle II can be an adverbial modifier:

(a) of time.

When guestioned Annie had implied vaguely... that she was anxious about her brother-in-law. (Crohin)

Когда Энни стали расспрашивать, она дала понять..., что беспокоится о своем шурине.

(b) of condition.

It was a dreadful thing that he now proposed, a breach of the law which, if discovered, would bring them into the police court. (Cronin)

To, что он предлагал, было ужасно: это было нарушение закона, и, если бы оно открылось, их отдали бы под суд.

(c) of comparison.

As if torn with inner conflict and indecision, he cried. (Galsworthy)

Он плакал, словно его мучили внутренняя борьба и сомнения.

Mr. Kantwise shook his head as though lost in wonder and admiration. (Trollope)

Мистер Кэитуайуз покачал головой, словно переполненный чувством удивления и восхищения.

(d) of concession.

... her spirit, though crushed, was not broken. (A. Bronte)

... хотя она и была подавлена, она не была сломлена.

Other grammarians view of the analysis of such word-groups as when questioned... , if discovered... , as if torn..., though crushed... is different. They consider such word-groups to be elliptical clauses and not participial phrases.

Participle II as a predicative.

In spite of himself, Val was impressed. (Galsworthy)

На Вэла это произвело впечатление, помимо его воли.

The inner gate was locked, and the lodge closed. (Dickens)

Внутренние ворота были заперты, и помещение привратника закрыто.

Participle II as part of a complex object.

She has found me unaltered; but I have found her changed. (Collins)

Она нашла, что я ничуть не переменился, а я нашел, что она изменилась.

2.2.4 Predicative constructions with the participle

In Modern English we find the following predicative constructions with the participle:

(1) the Objective Participial Construction;

(2) the Subjective Participial Construction;

(3) the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction;

(4) the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction. B.S. Khaimovich, B.I. Rogovskaya. A Course in English Grammar. 1966 p. 127

The Objective Participial Construction.

The Objective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case.

In the next berth she could hear her stepmother breathing heavily. (Hardy)

Ей было слышно как на соседней койке тяжело дышит ее мачеха.

The participle breaking is in predicate relation to the noun “stepmother”, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle.

In the Objective Participial Construction Participle I Indefinite Active or Participle II is used. In the sentence this construction has the function of a complex object. It usually corresponds to a subordinate object clause in Russian.

The Objective Participial Construction may be found:

(a) after verbs denoting sense perception, such as to see, to hear, to feel, to find, etc.

Then he looked out of the window and saw clouds gathering. (Dreiser)

Потом он выглянул из окна и увидел, что собираются тучи.

1 heard my wife coming... (Conan Doyle)

She could feel her hands trembling exceedingly. (Hardy)

She found him waiting for her at her journey's end... (Dickens)

I saw the pony harnessed myself. (Collins)

(b) after some verbs of mental activity, such as to consider, to understand.

I consider myself engaged to Herr Klesmer. (Eliot)

Я считаю себя помолвленной с господином Клесмером.

(c) after verbs denoting wish, such as to want, to wish, to desire. In this case only Participle II is used.

The governor wants it done quick. (Bennett)

Отец хочет, чтобы это было сделано быстро.

(d) after the verbs to have and to get; after these verbs only Participle II is used.

In this case the Objective Participial Construction shows that the action expressed by the participle is performed at the request of the person denoted by the subject' of the sentence. `Thus had the piano tuned' means 'I made someone tune the piano'.

I had my coat altered.

Я переделала пальто (т. е. поручила кому-то переделать его).

He ... had several bottles of wine brought ... (Dreiser)

Ему ... принесли несколько бутылок вина.

In interrogative and negative sentences the auxiliary verb to do is used:

Why don't you have your hair waved? (Du Maurier)

Почему вы не завьетесь (не сделаете завивку)?

Occasionally the meaning of the construction is different: it may show that the person denoted by the subject of the sentence experiences the action expressed by the participle.

The wounded man had his leg amputated.

Раненому ампутировали ногу.

The Subjective Participial Construction.

The Subjective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle (mostly Participle I) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case, which is the subject of the sentence.

In rendering this construction in Russian a complex sentence is generally used; the principal clause is of the type which in Russian syntax is called 'indefinite personal' (неопределенно-личное предложение).

The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.

They were heard talking together... (Collins)

This construction is chiefly used after verbs of sense perception.

The horse was seen descending the hill. (Hardy)

Видно было, как лошадь спускалась с холма.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle stands in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case; the noun or pronoun is not the subject of the sentence.

The door and window of the vacant room being open, we looked in. (Dickens)

Так как дверь и окно пустой комнаты были открыты, мы заглянули в нее.

In the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction Participle I (in all its forms) or Participle II is used. This construction is generally rendered in Russian by means of an adverbial clause. It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier. It can be an adverbial modifier:

(a) of time.

The lamp having been lit, Mrs. Macallan produced her son's letter. (Collins)

Когда зажгли лампу, миссис Макаллан достала письмо от сына.

This duty completed, he had three months' leave. (Hardy)

Когда эта работа была закончена, он получил трехмесячный отпуск.

(b) of cause.

It being now pretty late, we took our candles and went upstairs (Dickens)

Так как было довольно поздно, мы взяли свечи и пошли наверх.

A knock had come to the door, and there being nobody else to answer it, Clare, went out. (Hardy)

Послышался стук в дверь, и, так как больше некому было открыть, Клэр вышел.

(с) of attendant circumstances. In this function the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is mostly placed at the end of the sentence. In rendering it in Russian a coordinate clause or деепричастный оборот is used.

He turned and went, we, as before, following him. (Jerome)

Он повернулся и вышел; как и прежде, мы последовали за ним.

One morning he stood in front of the tank, his nose almost pressed to the glass. (Dreiser)

Однажды утром он стоял перед витриной, почти прижавшись носом к стеклу.

(d) of condition. In this function the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction occurs but seldom and is almost exclusively used with the participles permitting and failing.

Weather (time, circumstances) permitting, we shall start tomorrow.

Если погода (время, обстоятельства) позволит, мы поедем завтра.

Conciliation failing, force remains; but force failing, no further hope of conciliation is left. The example is borrowed from A Modern English Grammar by O. Jespersen p.219

Если не удается достигнуть примирения, приходится применить силу; но если сила не помогает, не остается никакой надежды на примирение.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction very often occurs in fiction and scientific literature; the use of this construction in colloquial English is rare.

The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.

The Absolute Participial Construction may be introduced by the preposition with and is then called the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction. It is in most cases used in the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.

This construction is rendered in Russian by a coordinate clause or деепричастный оборот.

They were walking on again, with Hugh calmly drawing at his pipe. (Lindsay)

Они снова шли вперед; Хью спокойно покуривал свою трубку.

The daughter sat quite silent and still, with her eyes fixed on the ground. (Dickens)

Дочь сидела молча и неподвижно, опустив глаза в землю.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction and the Nominative Absolute Construction are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a semicolon.

Grandcourt... rose and strolled out on the lawn, all the dogs following him. (Eliot)

Mr. Tulkinghorn comes and goes pretty often; there being estate business to do. (Dickens)

Then he started out, bag and overcoat in hand, to get his cup of coffee. (Maltz)

Prepositional Absolute Constructions are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

It was a balmy, radiant day, with the trees and grass shining exceedingly green after the rain of the night before. (Dreiser)

He was there, writing busily at a distant table, with his back towards the door. (Eliot)

2.2.5 Syntactical Role of the Gerund

The gerund may be used in various syntactic functions. A single gerund occurs but seldom; in most cases we find a gerundial phrase or a gerundial construction. Ilyish B.L. “The Structure of English Language” M., 1971, p.159

1. The gerund as a subject.

Talking mends no holes, (proverb)

Разговоры не помогают в беде.

Waiting for the Professor was a lame excuse for doing nothing. (Heym)

To, что мы ждали профессора, было слабым оправданием тому, что мы ничего не делали.

The gerund used as a subject may follow the predicate; in these cases the sentence opens with the introductory it (which serves as an introductory subject) or with the construction there is.

It's no use talking like that to me. (Shaw)

Бесполезно говорить со мной в таком тоне.

There was no mistaking the expression on her face. (Collins)

Выражения ее лица нельзя было не понять.

There is another view according to which it is the subject and the rest of the sentence is the predicate.

2. The gerund as a predicative.

The only remedy for such a headache as mine is going to bed. (Collins)

Единственное средство от такой головной боли, как у меня, -- это лечь спать.

3. The gerund as part of a compound verbal predicate.

(a) With verbs and verbal phrases denoting modality the gerund forms part of a compound verbal modal predicate.

We intend going to Switzerland, and climbing Mount Blanc. (Ch. Bronte)

Мы хотим поехать в Швейцарию и подняться па Монблан.

Joseph could not help admiring the man. (Heym)

Джозеф не мог не восхищаться этим человеком.

(b) With verbs denoting the beginning, the duration, or the end of an action, the gerund forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate.

She began sobbing and weeping. (Dickens)

In the night it started raining. (Hemingway)

Bathsheba continued walking. (Hardy)

Tom went on whitewashing. (Twain)

4. The gerund as an object.

The gerund may be used as a direct object and as a prepositional indirect object.

I simply love riding. (Galsworthy) (direct object)

Я просто обожаю кататься верхом.

She enjoyed singing and playing to him. (London) (direct object )

Ей доставляло удовольствие петь и играть для него.

Predicative constructions with the gerund form a complex object as they consist of two distinct elements, nominal and verbal.

Perhaps you wouldn't mind Richard's coming in? (Dickens) (complex object)

Может быть, вы не будете возражать против того, чтобы вошел Ричард?

Aunt Augusta won't quite approve of your being here. (Wilde) (prepositional complex object)

Тетя Августа будет не очень довольна тем, что вы здесь.

5. The gerund as an attribute. In this function the gerund is always preceded by a preposition.

Swithin protruded his pale round eyes with the effort of hearing. (Galsworthy)

Суизин широко открыл свои бесцветные круглые глаза, стараясь услышать разговор.

Не was born with the gift of winning hearts. (Gaskell)

Он родился с даром покорять сердца.

6. The gerund as an adverbial modifier.

In this function the gerund is always preceded by a preposition. It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time, manner, attendant circumstances, cause, condition, purpose and concession; the most common functions are those of adverbial modifiers of time, manner, and attendant circumstances. В.Л. Каушанская и др. Грамматика английского языка (на английском языке). 1973 M. C. 176

(a) As an adverbial modifier of time the gerund is preceded by the prepositions after, before, on (upon), in or at.

After leaving her umbrella in the hall, she entered the living room. (Cronin)

Оставив зонтик и передней, она вошла в гостиную.

Me was to have three days at home before going back to farm. (Galsworthy)

Он должен был пробыть три дня дома, прежде чем возвратиться на ферму.

On reaching Casterbridge he left the horse and trap at an inn. (Hardy)

Приехав в Кастербридж, он оставил лошадь и экипаж в гостинице.

In the function of an adverbial modifier of time the gerund sometimes competes with the participle.

George, on hearing the story, grinned. (Galsworthy)

Джордж, услышав эту историю, усмехнулся.

The four girls, hearing him speak in the hall, rushed out of the library. (Eliot)

Все четыре девочки, услышав, что он говорит в передней, выбежали из библиотеки.

After reaching the second landing ... I heard a sound of quiet and regular breathing on my left-hand side. (Collins)

Дойдя до второй площадки лестницы, ... я услышал с левой стороны спокойное и ровное дыхание.

Reaching the door of the room occupied by Cowperwood and Aileen, she tapped lightly. (Dreiser)

Дойдя до двери комнаты, которую занимали Каупсрвуд и Эйлин, она тихонько постучала.

(b) As an adverbial modifier of manner the gerund is used with the prepositions by or in.

She startled her father by bursting into tears. (Gaskell)

Она напугала своего отца тем, что расплакалась.

The day was spent in packing. (Da Maurier)

День прошел за упаковкой вещей.

(c) As an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances the gerund is preceded by the preposition without.

She was not brilliant, not active, but rather peaceful and statuesque without knowing it. (Dreiser)

Это была женщина не блестящая, не энергичная, но она была очень спокойна и величественна, сама того не зная.

(d) As an adverbial modifier of purpose, the gerund is chiefly used with the preposition for.

... one side of the gallery was used for dancing. (Eliot)

... одна сторона галереи использовалась для танцев.

(e) As an adverbial modifier of condition the gerund is preceded by the preposition without.

He has no right to come bothering you and papa without being invited. (Shaw)

Он не имеет права приходить и беспокоить вас и отца, если его не приглашают.

(f) As an adverbial modifier of cause the gerund is used with the prepositions for, for fear of, owing to.

I feel the better myself for having spent a good deal of my time abroad. (Eliot)

Я чувствую себя лучше оттого, что долго прожил за границей.

I dared not attend the funeral for fear of making a fool of myself. (Coppard)

Я не смел присутствовать на похоронах, так как боялся поставить себя в глупое положение.

(g) As an adverbial modifier of concession the gerund is preceded by the preposition in spite of.

In spite of being busy, he did all he could to help her.

The above examples show that the gerund preceded by one and the same preposition may be used in different functions: with the preposition without, it may perform the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances and of condition; with the preposition in, it may perform the function of an adverbial modifier of time and of manner; with the preposition for, it may perform the function of an adverbial modifier of purpose or of cause.

The Russian не + деепрнчастие may correspond to the English without + Gerund or not + Participle. It usually corresponds to not + Participle if it is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of cause.

He зная адреса мисс Бетси, Давид не мог ей написать.

Not knowing Miss Betsey's address, David could not write to her. (cause)

If не + деепричастие is used in the function of adverbial modifiers of attendant circumstances and of condition, it generally corresponds to without + Gerund.

Давид уехал из Лондона, никому ничего не сказав.

David left London without telling anybody about it. (attendant circumstances)

Мальчики не могли уходить из Салем-Хауса, не спросив разрешения.

The boys could not leave Salem House without asking for permission. (condition)

2.3.2 Constructions with the Gerund

Predicative constructions with the gerund.

Like all the verbals the gerund can form predicative constructions, i.e. constructions in which the verbal element expressed by the gerund is in predicate relation to the nominal element expressed by a noun or pronoun.

I don't like your going off without any money. (Maltz)

Мне не нравится, что вы уходите без денег.

Here the gerund going off is in predicate relation to the pronoun your, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by the gerund.

The nominal element of the construction can be expressed in different ways.

1. If it denotes a living being it may be expressed:

(a) by a noun in the genitive case or by a possessive pronoun.

His further consideration of the point was prevented by Richard's coming back to us in an excited state. (Dickens)

Его дальнейшие размышления были прерваны тем, что вернулся Ричард в чрезвычайно возбужденном состоянии.

Do you mind my smoking? (Hardy)

Вы ничего не имеете против того, чтобы я курил?

(b) by a noun in the common case.

I have a distinct recollection of Lady Chiltern always getting the good conduct prize! (Wilde)

Я отлично помню, что леди Чильтерн всегда получала награды за примерное поведение.

Thus in Modern English there are two parallel constructions of the type: Fancy David's courting Emily and Fancy David courting Emily. These two constructions may be used indifferently, but sometimes there is a slight difference in meaning: in the first example the action (the verbal element of the construction) is emphasized, whereas in the second the doer of the action (the nominal element of the construction) is emphasized. Ilyish B.L. “The Structure of English Language” M., 1971, p.161

Occasionally examples are found where the nominal element of the construction is expressed by a pronoun in the objective case.

I hope you will forgive me disturbing you. (Du Maurier)

Надеюсь, вы простите меня за то, что я вас побеспокоил.

There are cases when the nominal element of the construction, though denoting a living being, cannot be expressed by a noun in the possessive case, but only by a noun in the common case, namely when it consists of two or more nouns or when it is a noun modified by an attribute in post-position.

I object to Mary and Jane going out on such a windy day. He felt no uneasiness now in the thought of the brother and) sister being alone together. (Eliot)

Его теперь не смущала мысль о том, что брат и сестра остались вдвоем.

Did you ever hear of a man of sense rejecting such an offer?

Слышали ли вы когда-нибудь, чтобы разумный человек отказался от такого предложения?

2. If the nominal element of the construction denotes a lifeless thing, it is expressed by a noun in the common case (such nouns, as a rule, are not used in the genitive case) or by a possessive pronoun.

I said something about my clock being slow. (Du Maurier)

Я сказала, что мои часы отстают.

Peggotty spoke of my room, and of its being ready for me. (Dickens)

Пеготти говорила о моей комнате и о том, что она уже приготовлена для меня.

3. The nominal element of the construction can also be expressed by a pronoun which has no case distinctions, such as all, this, that, both, each, something.

I insist on both of them coming in time.

Я требую, чтобы они оба пришли вовремя.

Again Michael... was conscious of something deep and private stirring within himself. (Galsworthy)

Майкл опять почувствовал, что в его душе шевельнулось что-то глубокое и затаенное.

Some grammarians recognize the existence of two separate constructions: the gerundial construction (a construction whose nominal element is expressed by a noun in the genitive case or by a possessive pronoun) and a construction with a half gerund (a construction whose nominal element is expressed by a noun in the common case, a pronoun in the objective ease, or a pronoun which has no case distinctions).

A gerundial construction is nearly always rendered in Russian by a subordinate clause, generally introduced by то, что; тем, что; как, etc.

His being a foreigner, an ex-enemy was bad enough. (Aldington)

To, что он был иностранец, бывший неприятель, было уже плохо.

Her thoughts were interrupted at last, by the door opening gently. (Reade)

Ее мысли были наконец прерваны тем, что дверь тихонько открылась.

The use of the gerund.

In Modern English the gerund is widely used and often competes with the infinitive.

In the following cases- only the gerund is used:

1. With the verbs and verbal phrases: to avoid, to burst out, to deny, to enjoy, to excuse, to fancy (in imperative sentences as an exclamation of surprise), to finish, to forgive, to give up, to go on, to keep (on), to leave off, to mind (in negative and interrogative sentences), to postpone, to put off, cannot help, and some others.

He avoided looking at Sabina. (Wilson)

Он избегал смотреть на Сабину.

…she burst out crying. (Collins)

Она расплакалась.

We all burst out laughing. (Braine)

Мы все рассмеялись.

She denied having been at the station that evening. (Gaskell)

Она отрицала, что была в тот вечер на станции.

... he enjoyed thinking of her as his future wife. (Eliot)

... ему доставляло удовольствие думать о ней как о своей будущей жене.

Excuse my leaving you in the dark a moment. (Dickens)

Извините, что я па минуту оставлю вас в темноте.

Fancy finding you here at such аи hour! (Hardy)

Я даже и представить себе не мог, что застану вас здесь в такое время!

Forgive my speaking plainly. (Hardy)

Простите, что я говорю так прямо.

2. With the following verbs and verbal phrases used with a preposition: to accuse of, to agree to, to approve of, to complain of, to depend on, to feel like, to insist on, to look -like, to object to, to persist in, to prevent from, to rely on, to speak of, to succeed in, to suspect of, to thank for, to think of, to give- up the idea of, to look forward to, not to like the idea of, to miss an (the) opportunity of and some others.

They accuse me of having dealt with the Germans. (Heym)

Меня обвиняют в том, что я имел дело с немцами.

It was clear now... that Abraham never had agreed to their being married to-day. (Stone)

Теперь было ясно, что Авраам никогда не соглашался на то, чтобы они поженились сегодня.

You did not approve of my playing at roulette. (Eliot)

Вы не одобряли того, что я играла в рулетку.

All the happiness of my life depends on your loving me. (Eliot)

Все счастье моей жизни зависит от того, полюбите ли вы меня.

I don't feel like going out. (Wilson)

Мне не хочется выходить,

3. With the following predicative word-groups (with or without a preposition): to be aware of, to be busy in, to be capable of, to be fond of, to be guilty of, to be indignant at, to be pleased (displeased) at, 1 to be proud of, to be sure of, to be surprised (astonished) at, to be worth (while), and some others.

Sir Pitt Crawley was not aware of Becky's having married Rawdon.

Сэр Питт Кроули не знал, что Бекки вышла замуж за Родона.

I felt physically incapable of remaining still in any one place and morally incapable of speaking to any one human being. (Collins)

Я чувствовал, что я физически не в состоянии оставаться на одном месте и морально не к состоянии говорить с кем бы то ни было.

1 am very fond of being looked at. (Wilde)

Я очень люблю, когда на меня смотрят.

You are really guilty of having connived with a German officer to help his escape. (Heym)

Вы действительно виновны в том, что способствовали побегу немецкого офицераю

The gerund and the infinitive.

With a number of verbs and word-groups both the gerund and the infinitive may be used. The most important of them are: to be afraid, to begin, to cease, to continue, can (cannot) afford, to dread, to fear, to forget, to hate, to intend, to like (dislike), to neglect, to prefer, to propose, to remember, to recollect, to start, to stop.

The young man began turning over the pages of a book. (Priestley)

At length she began to speak softly. (Eliot)

She continued standing near the piano. (Eliot)

She continued to look at him... (Dickens)

It is sometimes possible to find a reason for the use of a given form. With some verbs and word-groups, such as to be afraid, to forget, to hate, to like (dislike), to prefer the infinitive is mostly used with reference to a special occasion, the gerund being more appropriate to a general statement.

The child was not afraid of remaining alone, but he was afraid to remain alone on such a stormy night.

Ребенок (вообще) не боялся оставаться один, но он боялся остаться один в такую бурную ночь.

I was always afraid of losing his goodwill. (Liewellyn)

Я всегда боялся потерять его расположение.

Gwendolen answered rather pettishly-, and her mamma was afraid to say more. (Eliot)

Гвендолен ответила несколько раздраженно, и ее мать побоялась продолжать разговор.

Don't forget shutting the windows when you leave home.

He забывайте закрывать окна, уходя из дому.

Don't forget to shut the window when you leave home, it is very windy to-day.

He забудьте закрыть окно, когда будете уходить из дому; сегодня очень ветрено.

I don't like interrupting people.

Я не люблю отрывать людей от дела.

I don't like to interrupt him, he seems very busy.

Мне не хочется мешать ему, он, кажется, очень занят.

With the verb to remember the infinitive usually refers to the future, and the gerund to the past. Смирницкий А.И. Иностранные языки в школе. 1987, p. 116

I remember seeing the book in many bookshops.

Я помню, что видел эту книгу во многих магазинах.

Remember to buy the book.

He забудьте купить эту книгу.

With the verb to stop the infinitive and the gerund have different syntactical functions.

The gerund forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate.

They stopped talking when he came in. (Galsworthy)

Когда он вошел, они перестали говорить.

The infinitive has the function of an adverbial modifier of purpose.